Commission Regulation (EC) No 1126/2008 of 3 November 2008 adopting certain international accounting standards in accordance with Regulation (EC) No 1606/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council (Text with EEA relevance)

Text from publications.europa.eu (text as adopted and published in the Official Journal of the European Union; later amendments are not included). Retrieved 2026-10-25.

29.11.2008

Official Journal of the European Union

L 320/1

COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 1126/2008

of 3 November 2008

adopting certain international accounting standards in accordance with Regulation (EC) No 1606/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council

(Text with EEA relevance)

THE COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES,

Having regard to the Treaty establishing the European Community,

Having regard to Regulation (EC) No 1606/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 July 2002 on the application of international accounting standards ( 1 ) , and in particular Article 3(1) thereof,

Whereas:

(1)

Regulation (EC) No 1606/2002 requires that for each financial year starting on or after 1 January 2005, publicly traded companies governed by the law of a Member State are, under certain conditions, to prepare their consolidated accounts in conformity with international accounting standards as defined in Article 2 of that Regulation.

(2)

By Commission Regulation (EC) No 1725/2003 of 29 September 2003 adopting certain international accounting standards in accordance with Regulation (EC) No 1606/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council ( 2 ) , certain international standards and interpretations that were in existence at 14 September 2002 were adopted. The Commission, having considered the advice provided by the Technical Expert Group (TEG) of the European Financial Reporting Advisory Group (EFRAG), has amended that Regulation in order to include all standards presented by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) as well as all interpretations presented by the International Financial Reporting Interpretations Committee (IFRIC) and adopted within the Community by 15 October 2008 in full, except for IAS 39 (related to recognition and measurement of financial instruments), of which limited parts have been omitted.

(3)

The different international standards have been adopted by a number of amending regulations. This causes legal uncertainty and difficulty in correctly applying international accounting standards in the Community. In order to simplify Community legislation on accounting standards, it is appropriate, for the sake of clarity and transparency, to incorporate in a single text the standards presently contained in Regulation (EC) No 1725/2003 and the acts amending it.

(4)

Regulation (EC) No 1725/2003 should therefore be replaced by this Regulation.

(5)

The measures provided for in this Regulation are in accordance with the opinion of the Accounting Regulatory Committee,

HAS ADOPTED THIS REGULATION:

Article 1

The international accounting standards, as defined in Article 2 of Regulation (EC) No 1606/2002, shall be adopted as set out in the Annex hereto.

Article 2

Regulation (EC) No 1725/2003 is hereby repealed.

References to the repealed Regulation shall be construed as references to this Regulation.

Article 3

This Regulation shall enter into force on the third day following its publication in the Official Journal of the European Union .

This Regulation shall be binding in its entirety and directly applicable in all Member States.

Done at Brussels, 3 November 2008.

For the Commission

Charlie McCREEVY

Member of the Commission

( 1 )

OJ L 243, 11.9.2002, p. 1 .

( 2 )

OJ L 261, 13.10.2003, p. 1 .

ANNEX

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARDS

IAS 1

Presentation of financial statements

IAS 2

Inventories

IAS 7

Cash-flow statements

IAS 8

Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and errors

IAS 10

Events after the balance sheet date

IAS 11

Construction contracts

IAS 12

Income taxes

IAS 16

Property, plant and equipment

IAS 17

Leases

IAS 18

Revenue

IAS 19

Employee benefits

IAS 20

Accounting for government grants and disclosure of government assistance

130

IAS 21

The effects of changes in foreign exchange rates

134

IAS 23

Borrowing costs

142

IAS 24

Related party disclosures

146

IAS 26

Accounting and reporting by retirement benefit plans

150

IAS 27

Consolidated and separate financial statements

156

IAS 28

Investments in associates

161

IAS 29

Financial reporting in hyperinflationary economies

167

IAS 31

Interests in joint ventures

171

IAS 32

Financial instruments: presentation

179

IAS 33

Earnings per share

195

IAS 34

Interim financial reporting

208

IAS 36

Impairment of assets

215

IAS 37

Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets

241

IAS 38

Intangible assets

252

IAS 39

Financial instruments: recognition and measurement

270

IAS 40

Investment property

323

IAS 41

Agriculture

335

IFRS 1

First-time adoption of international financial reporting standards

342

IFRS 2

Share-based payment

356

IFRS 3

Business combinations

373

IFRS 4

Insurance contracts

390

IFRS 5

Non-current assets held for sale and discontinued operations

405

IFRS 6

Exploration for and evaluation of mineral resources

413

IFRS 7

Financial instruments: disclosures

417

IFRS 8

Operating segments

432

IFRIC 1

Changes in existing decommissioning, restoration and similar liabilities

439

IFRIC 2

Members' shares in co-operative entities and similar instruments

441

IFRIC 4

Determining whether an arrangement contains a lease

447

IFRIC 5

Rights to interests arising from decommissioning, restoration and environmental rehabilitation funds

450

IFRIC 6

Liabilities arising from participating in a specific market — waste electrical and electronic equipment

453

IFRIC 7

Applying the Restatement Approach under IAS 29 Financial reporting in hyperinflationary economies

455

IFRIC 8

Scope of IFRS 2

457

IFRIC 9

Reassessment of embedded derivatives

459

IFRIC 10

Interim financial reporting and impairment

461

IFRIC 11

IFRS 2 — Group and treasury share transactions

462

SIC-7

Introduction of the euro

464

SIC-10

Government assistance — no specific relation to operating activities

465

SIC-12

Consolidation — special purpose entities

466

SIC-13

Jointly controlled entities — non-monetary contributions by venturers

468

SIC-15

Operating leases — incentives

470

SIC-21

Income taxes — recovery of revalued non-depreciable assets

471

SIC-25

Income taxes — changes in the tax status of an entity or its shareholders

472

SIC-27

Evaluating the substance of transactions involving the legal form of a lease

473

SIC-29

Disclosure — service concession arrangements

476

SIC-31

Revenue — barter transactions involving advertising services

478

SIC-32

Intangible assets — website costs

479

Reproduction allowed within the European Economic Area. All existing rights reserved outside the EEA, with the exception of the right to reproduce for the purposes of personal use or other fair dealing. Further information can be obtained from the IASB at www.iasb.org

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 1

Presentation of financial statements

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this standard is to prescribe the basis for presentation of general purpose financial statements, to ensure comparability both with the entity's financial statements of previous periods and with the financial statements of other entities. To achieve this objective, this standard sets out overall requirements for the presentation of financial statements, guidelines for their structure and minimum requirements for their content. The recognition, measurement and disclosure of specific transactions and other events are dealt with in other standards and in interpretations.

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied to all general purpose financial statements prepared and presented in accordance with international financial reporting standards (IFRSs).

General purpose financial statements are those intended to meet the needs of users who are not in a position to demand reports tailored to meet their particular information needs. General purpose financial statements include those that are presented separately or within another public document such as an annual report or a prospectus. This standard does not apply to the structure and content of condensed interim financial statements prepared in accordance with IAS 34 Interim financial reporting . However, paragraphs 13-41 apply to such financial statements. This standard applies equally to all entities and whether or not they need to prepare consolidated financial statements or separate financial statements, as defined in IAS 27 Consolidated and separate financial statements .

[Deleted]

This standard uses terminology that is suitable for profit-oriented entities, including public sector business entities. Entities with not-for-profit activities in the private sector, public sector or government seeking to apply this standard may need to amend the descriptions used for particular line items in the financial statements and for the financial statements themselves.

Similarly, entities that do not have equity as defined in IAS 32 Financial instruments: presentation (e.g. some mutual funds) and entities whose share capital is not equity (e.g. some cooperative entities) may need to adapt the presentation in the financial statements of members' or unitholders' interests.

PURPOSE OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

Financial statements are a structured representation of the financial position and financial performance of an entity. The objective of general purpose financial statements is to provide information about the financial position, financial performance and cash flows of an entity that is useful to a wide range of users in making economic decisions. Financial statements also show the results of management's stewardship of the resources entrusted to it. To meet this objective, financial statements provide information about an entity's:

(a)

assets;

(b)

liabilities;

(c)

equity;

(d)

income and expenses, including gains and losses;

(e)

other changes in equity; and

(f)

cash flows.

This information, along with other information in the notes, assists users of financial statements in predicting the entity's future cash flows and, in particular, their timing and certainty.

COMPONENTS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

A complete set of financial statements comprises:

(a)

a balance sheet;

(b)

an income statement;

(c)

a statement of changes in equity showing either:

(i)

all changes in equity; or

(ii)

changes in equity other than those arising from transactions with equity holders acting in their capacity as equity holders;

(d)

a cash-flow statement; and

(e)

notes, comprising a summary of significant accounting policies and other explanatory notes.

Many entities present, outside the financial statements, a financial review by management that describes and explains the main features of the entity's financial performance and financial position and the principal uncertainties it faces. Such a report may include a review of:

(a)

the main factors and influences determining financial performance, including changes in the environment in which the entity operates, the entity's response to those changes and their effect, and the entity's policy for investment to maintain and enhance financial performance, including its dividend policy;

(b)

the entity's sources of funding and its targeted ratio of liabilities to equity; and

(c)

the entity's resources not recognised in the balance sheet in accordance with IFRSs.

Many entities also present, outside the financial statements, reports and statements such as environmental reports and value added statements, particularly in industries in which environmental factors are significant and when employees are regarded as an important user group. Reports and statements presented outside financial statements are outside the scope of IFRSs.

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

Impracticable Applying a requirement is impracticable when the entity cannot apply it after making every reasonable effort to do so.

International financial reporting standards (IFRSs) are standards and interpretations adopted by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). They comprise:

(a)

international financial reporting standards;

(b)

international accounting standards; and

(c)

interpretations originated by the International Financial Reporting Interpretations Committee (IFRIC) or the former Standing Interpretations Committee (SIC).

Material Omissions or misstatements of items are material if they could, individually or collectively, influence the economic decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial statements. Materiality depends on the size and nature of the omission or misstatement judged in the surrounding circumstances. The size or nature of the item, or a combination of both, could be the determining factor.

Notes contain information in addition to that presented in the balance sheet, income statement, statement of changes in equity and cash-flow statement. Notes provide narrative descriptions or disaggregations of items disclosed in those statements and information about items that do not qualify for recognition in those statements.

Assessing whether an omission or misstatement could influence economic decisions of users, and so be material, requires consideration of the characteristics of those users. The Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements states in paragraph 25 that ‘users are assumed to have a reasonable knowledge of business and economic activities and accounting and a willingness to study the information with reasonable diligence.’ Therefore, the assessment needs to take into account how users with such attributes could reasonably be expected to be influenced in making economic decisions.

OVERALL CONSIDERATIONS

Fair presentation and compliance with IFRSs

Financial statements shall present fairly the financial position, financial performance and cash flows of an entity. Fair presentation requires the faithful representation of the effects of transactions, other events and conditions in accordance with the definitions and recognition criteria for assets, liabilities, income and expenses set out in the Framework . The application of IFRSs, with additional disclosure when necessary, is presumed to result in financial statements that achieve a fair presentation.

An entity whose financial statements comply with IFRSs shall make an explicit and unreserved statement of such compliance in the notes. Financial statements shall not be described as complying with IFRSs unless they comply with all the requirements of IFRSs.

In virtually all circumstances, a fair presentation is achieved by compliance with applicable IFRSs. A fair presentation also requires an entity:

(a)

to select and apply accounting policies in accordance with IAS 8 Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and errors . IAS 8 sets out a hierarchy of authoritative guidance that management considers in the absence of a standard or an interpretation that specifically applies to an item;

(b)

to present information, including accounting policies, in a manner that provides relevant, reliable, comparable and understandable information;

(c)

to provide additional disclosures when compliance with the specific requirements in IFRSs is insufficient to enable users to understand the impact of particular transactions, other events and conditions on the entity's financial position and financial performance.

Inappropriate accounting policies are not rectified either by disclosure of the accounting policies used or by notes or explanatory material.

In the extremely rare circumstances in which management concludes that compliance with a requirement in a standard or an interpretation would be so misleading that it would conflict with the objective of financial statements set out in the Framework , the entity shall depart from that requirement in the manner set out in paragraph 18 if the relevant regulatory framework requires, or otherwise does not prohibit, such a departure.

When an entity departs from a requirement of a standard or an interpretation in accordance with paragraph 17, it shall disclose:

(a)

that management has concluded that the financial statements present fairly the entity's financial position, financial performance and cash flows;

(b)

that it has complied with applicable standards and interpretations, except that it has departed from a particular requirement to achieve a fair presentation;

(c)

the title of the standard or interpretation from which the entity has departed, the nature of the departure, including the treatment that the standard or interpretation would require, the reason why that treatment would be so misleading in the circumstances that it would conflict with the objective of financial statements set out in the Framework , and the treatment adopted; and

(d)

for each period presented, the financial impact of the departure on each item in the financial statements that would have been reported in complying with the requirement.

When an entity has departed from a requirement of a standard or an interpretation in a prior period, and that departure affects the amounts recognised in the financial statements for the current period, it shall make the disclosures set out in paragraph 18(c) and (d).

Paragraph 19 applies, for example, when an entity departed in a prior period from a requirement in a standard or an interpretation for the measurement of assets or liabilities and that departure affects the measurement of changes in assets and liabilities recognised in the current period's financial statements.

In the extremely rare circumstances in which management concludes that compliance with a requirement in a standard or an interpretation would be so misleading that it would conflict with the objective of financial statements set out in the Framework , but the relevant regulatory framework prohibits departure from the requirement, the entity shall, to the maximum extent possible, reduce the perceived misleading aspects of compliance by disclosing:

(a)

the title of the standard or interpretation in question, the nature of the requirement, and the reason why management has concluded that complying with that requirement is so misleading in the circumstances that it conflicts with the objective of financial statements set out in the Framework ; and

(b)

for each period presented, the adjustments to each item in the financial statements that management has concluded would be necessary to achieve a fair presentation.

For the purpose of paragraphs 17-21, an item of information would conflict with the objective of financial statements when it does not represent faithfully the transactions, other events and conditions that it either purports to represent or could reasonably be expected to represent and, consequently, it would be likely to influence economic decisions made by users of financial statements. When assessing whether complying with a specific requirement in a standard or an interpretation would be so misleading that it would conflict with the objective of financial statements set out in the Framework , management considers:

(a)

why the objective of financial statements is not achieved in the particular circumstances; and

(b)

how the entity's circumstances differ from those of other entities that comply with the requirement. If other entities in similar circumstances comply with the requirement, there is a rebuttable presumption that the entity's compliance with the requirement would not be so misleading that it would conflict with the objective of financial statements set out in the Framework .

Going concern

When preparing financial statements, management shall make an assessment of an entity's ability to continue as a going concern. Financial statements shall be prepared on a going concern basis unless management either intends to liquidate the entity or to cease trading, or has no realistic alternative but to do so. When management is aware, in making its assessment, of material uncertainties related to events or conditions that may cast significant doubt upon the entity's ability to continue as a going concern, those uncertainties shall be disclosed. When financial statements are not prepared on a going concern basis, that fact shall be disclosed, together with the basis on which the financial statements are prepared and the reason why the entity is not regarded as a going concern.

In assessing whether the going concern assumption is appropriate, management takes into account all available information about the future, which is at least, but is not limited to, 12 months from the balance sheet date. The degree of consideration depends on the facts in each case. When an entity has a history of profitable operations and ready access to financial resources, a conclusion that the going concern basis of accounting is appropriate may be reached without detailed analysis. In other cases, management may need to consider a wide range of factors relating to current and expected profitability, debt repayment schedules and potential sources of replacement financing before it can satisfy itself that the going concern basis is appropriate.

Accrual basis of accounting

An entity shall prepare its financial statements, except for cash flow information, using the accrual basis of accounting.

When the accrual basis of accounting is used, items are recognised as assets, liabilities, equity, income and expenses (the elements of financial statements) when they satisfy the definitions and recognition criteria for those elements in the Framework .

Consistency of presentation

The presentation and classification of items in the financial statements shall be retained from one period to the next unless:

(a)

it is apparent, following a significant change in the nature of the entity's operations or a review of its financial statements, that another presentation or classification would be more appropriate having regard to the criteria for the selection and application of accounting policies in IAS 8; or

(b)

a standard or an interpretation requires a change in presentation.

A significant acquisition or disposal, or a review of the presentation of the financial statements, might suggest that the financial statements need to be presented differently. An entity changes the presentation of its financial statements only if the changed presentation provides information that is reliable and is more relevant to users of the financial statements and the revised structure is likely to continue, so that comparability is not impaired. When making such changes in presentation, an entity reclassifies its comparative information in accordance with paragraphs 38 and 39.

Materiality and aggregation

Each material class of similar items shall be presented separately in the financial statements. Items of a dissimilar nature or function shall be presented separately unless they are immaterial.

Financial statements result from processing large numbers of transactions or other events that are aggregated into classes according to their nature or function. The final stage in the process of aggregation and classification is the presentation of condensed and classified data, which form line items on the face of the balance sheet, income statement, statement of changes in equity and cash-flow statement, or in the notes. If a line item is not individually material, it is aggregated with other items either on the face of those statements or in the notes. An item that is not sufficiently material to warrant separate presentation on the face of those statements may nevertheless be sufficiently material for it to be presented separately in the notes.

Applying the concept of materiality means that a specific disclosure requirement in a standard or an interpretation need not be satisfied if the information is not material.

Offsetting

Assets and liabilities, and income and expenses, shall not be offset unless required or permitted by a standard or an interpretation.

It is important that assets and liabilities, and income and expenses, are reported separately. Offsetting in the income statement or the balance sheet, except when offsetting reflects the substance of the transaction or other event, detracts from the ability of users both to understand the transactions, other events and conditions that have occurred and to assess the entity's future cash flows. Measuring assets net of valuation allowances — for example, obsolescence allowances on inventories and doubtful debts allowances on receivables — is not offsetting.

IAS 18 Revenue defines revenue and requires it to be measured at the fair value of the consideration received or receivable, taking into account the amount of any trade discounts and volume rebates allowed by the entity. An entity undertakes, in the course of its ordinary activities, other transactions that do not generate revenue but are incidental to the main revenue-generating activities. The results of such transactions are presented, when this presentation reflects the substance of the transaction or other event, by netting any income with related expenses arising on the same transaction. For example:

(a)

gains and losses on the disposal of non-current assets, including investments and operating assets, are reported by deducting from the proceeds on disposal the carrying amount of the asset and related selling expenses; and

(b)

expenditure related to a provision that is recognised in accordance with IAS 37 Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets and reimbursed under a contractual arrangement with a third party (for example, a supplier's warranty agreement) may be netted against the related reimbursement.

In addition, gains and losses arising from a group of similar transactions are reported on a net basis, for example, foreign exchange gains and losses or gains and losses arising on financial instruments held for trading. Such gains and losses are, however, reported separately if they are material.

Comparative information

Except when a standard or an interpretation permits or requires otherwise, comparative information shall be disclosed in respect of the previous period for all amounts reported in the financial statements. Comparative information shall be included for narrative and descriptive information when it is relevant to an understanding of the current period's financial statements.

In some cases, narrative information provided in the financial statements for the previous period(s) continues to be relevant in the current period. For example, details of a legal dispute, the outcome of which was uncertain at the last balance sheet date and is yet to be resolved, are disclosed in the current period. Users benefit from information that the uncertainty existed at the last balance sheet date, and about the steps that have been taken during the period to resolve the uncertainty.

When the presentation or classification of items in the financial statements is amended, comparative amounts shall be reclassified unless the reclassification is impracticable. When comparative amounts are reclassified, an entity shall disclose:

(a)

the nature of the reclassification;

(b)

the amount of each item or class of items that is reclassified; and

(c)

the reason for the reclassification.

When it is impracticable to reclassify comparative amounts, an entity shall disclose:

(a)

the reason for not reclassifying the amounts; and

(b)

the nature of the adjustments that would have been made if the amounts had been reclassified.

Enhancing the inter-period comparability of information assists users in making economic decisions, especially by allowing the assessment of trends in financial information for predictive purposes. In some circumstances, it is impracticable to reclassify comparative information for a particular prior period to achieve comparability with the current period. For example, data may not have been collected in the prior period(s) in a way that allows reclassification, and it may not be practicable to recreate the information.

IAS 8 deals with the adjustments to comparative information required when an entity changes an accounting policy or corrects an error.

STRUCTURE AND CONTENT

Introduction

This standard requires particular disclosures on the face of the balance sheet, income statement and statement of changes in equity and requires disclosure of other line items either on the face of those statements or in the notes. IAS 7 Cash-flow statements sets out requirements for the presentation of a cash-flow statement.

This standard sometimes uses the term ‘disclosure’ in a broad sense, encompassing items presented on the face of the balance sheet, income statement, statement of changes in equity and cash-flow statement, as well as in the notes. Disclosures are also required by other standards and interpretations. Unless specified to the contrary elsewhere in this standard, or in another standard or interpretation, such disclosures are made either on the face of the balance sheet, income statement, statement of changes in equity or cash-flow statement (whichever is relevant), or in the notes.

Identification of the financial statements

The financial statements shall be identified clearly and distinguished from other information in the same published document.

IFRSs apply only to financial statements, and not to other information presented in an annual report or other document. Therefore, it is important that users can distinguish information that is prepared using IFRSs from other information that may be useful to users but is not the subject of those requirements.

Each component of the financial statements shall be identified clearly. In addition, the following information shall be displayed prominently, and repeated when it is necessary for a proper understanding of the information presented:

(a)

the name of the reporting entity or other means of identification, and any change in that information from the preceding balance sheet date;

(b)

whether the financial statements cover the individual entity or a group of entities;

(c)

the balance sheet date or the period covered by the financial statements, whichever is appropriate to that component of the financial statements;

(d)

the presentation currency, as defined in IAS 21 The effects of changes in foreign exchange rates ; and

(e)

the level of rounding used in presenting amounts in the financial statements.

The requirements in paragraph 46 are normally met by presenting page headings and abbreviated column headings on each page of the financial statements. Judgement is required in determining the best way of presenting such information. For example, when the financial statements are presented electronically, separate pages are not always used; the above items are then presented frequently enough to ensure a proper understanding of the information included in the financial statements.

Financial statements are often made more understandable by presenting information in thousands or millions of units of the presentation currency. This is acceptable as long as the level of rounding in presentation is disclosed and material information is not omitted.

Reporting period

Financial statements shall be presented at least annually. When an entity's balance sheet date changes and the annual financial statements are presented for a period longer or shorter than one year, an entity shall disclose, in addition to the period covered by the financial statements:

(a)

the reason for using a longer or shorter period; and

(b)

the fact that comparative amounts for the income statement, statement of changes in equity, cash-flow statement and related notes are not entirely comparable.

Normally, financial statements are consistently prepared covering a one-year period. However, for practical reasons, some entities prefer to report, for example, for a 52-week period. This standard does not preclude this practice, because the resulting financial statements are unlikely to be materially different from those that would be presented for one year.

Balance sheet

Current/non-current distinction

An entity shall present current and non-current assets, and current and non-current liabilities, as separate classifications on the face of its balance sheet in accordance with paragraphs 57-67 except when a presentation based on liquidity provides information that is reliable and is more relevant. When that exception applies, all assets and liabilities shall be presented broadly in order of liquidity.

Whichever method of presentation is adopted, for each asset and liability line item that combines amounts expected to be recovered or settled (a) no more than 12 months after the balance sheet date and (b) more than 12 months after the balance sheet date, an entity shall disclose the amount expected to be recovered or settled after more than 12 months.

When an entity supplies goods or services within a clearly identifiable operating cycle, separate classification of current and non-current assets and liabilities on the face of the balance sheet provides useful information by distinguishing the net assets that are continuously circulating as working capital from those used in the entity's long-term operations. It also highlights assets that are expected to be realised within the current operating cycle, and liabilities that are due for settlement within the same period.

For some entities, such as financial institutions, a presentation of assets and liabilities in increasing or decreasing order of liquidity provides information that is reliable and is more relevant than a current/non-current presentation because the entity does not supply goods or services within a clearly identifiable operating cycle.

In applying paragraph 51, an entity is permitted to present some of its assets and liabilities using a current/non-current classification and others in order of liquidity when this provides information that is reliable and is more relevant. The need for a mixed basis of presentation might arise when an entity has diverse operations.

Information about expected dates of realisation of assets and liabilities is useful in assessing the liquidity and solvency of an entity. IFRS 7 Financial instruments: disclosures requires disclosure of the maturity dates of financial assets and financial liabilities. Financial assets include trade and other receivables, and financial liabilities include trade and other payables. Information on the expected date of recovery and settlement of non-monetary assets and liabilities such as inventories and provisions is also useful, whether or not assets and liabilities are classified as current or non-current. For example, an entity discloses the amount of inventories that are expected to be recovered more than 12 months after the balance sheet date.

Current assets

An asset shall be classified as current when it satisfies any of the following criteria:

(a)

it is expected to be realised in, or is intended for sale or consumption in, the entity's normal operating cycle;

(b)

it is held primarily for the purpose of being traded;

(c)

it is expected to be realised within 12 months after the balance sheet date; or

(d)

it is cash or a cash equivalent (as defined in IAS 7) unless it is restricted from being exchanged or used to settle a liability for at least 12 months after the balance sheet date.

All other assets shall be classified as non-current.

This standard uses the term ‘non-current’ to include tangible, intangible and financial assets of a long-term nature. It does not prohibit the use of alternative descriptions as long as the meaning is clear.

The operating cycle of an entity is the time between the acquisition of assets for processing and their realisation in cash or cash equivalents. When the entity's normal operating cycle is not clearly identifiable, its duration is assumed to be 12 months. Current assets include assets (such as inventories and trade receivables) that are sold, consumed or realised as part of the normal operating cycle even when they are not expected to be realised within 12 months after the balance sheet date. Current assets also include assets held primarily for the purpose of being traded (financial assets within this category are classified as held for trading in accordance with IAS 39 Financial instruments: recognition and measurement ) and the current portion of non-current financial assets.

Current liabilities

A liability shall be classified as current when it satisfies any of the following criteria:

(a)

it is expected to be settled in the entity's normal operating cycle;

(b)

it is held primarily for the purpose of being traded;

(c)

it is due to be settled within 12 months after the balance sheet date; or

(d)

the entity does not have an unconditional right to defer settlement of the liability for at least 12 months after the balance sheet date.

All other liabilities shall be classified as non-current.

Some current liabilities, such as trade payables and some accruals for employee and other operating costs, are part of the working capital used in the entity's normal operating cycle. Such operating items are classified as current liabilities even if they are due to be settled more than 12 months after the balance sheet date. The same normal operating cycle applies to the classification of an entity's assets and liabilities. When the entity's normal operating cycle is not clearly identifiable, its duration is assumed to be 12 months.

Other current liabilities are not settled as part of the normal operating cycle, but are due for settlement within 12 months after the balance sheet date or held primarily for the purpose of being traded. Examples are financial liabilities classified as held for trading in accordance with IAS 39, bank overdrafts, and the current portion of non-current financial liabilities, dividends payable, income taxes and other non-trade payables. Financial liabilities that provide financing on a long-term basis (i.e. are not part of the working capital used in the entity's normal operating cycle) and are not due for settlement within 12 months after the balance sheet date are non-current liabilities, subject to paragraphs 65 and 66.

An entity classifies its financial liabilities as current when they are due to be settled within 12 months after the balance sheet date, even if:

(a)

the original term was for a period longer than 12 months; and

(b)

an agreement to refinance, or to reschedule payments, on a long-term basis is completed after the balance sheet date and before the financial statements are authorised for issue.

If an entity expects, and has the discretion, to refinance or roll over an obligation for at least 12 months after the balance sheet date under an existing loan facility, it classifies the obligation as non-current, even if it would otherwise be due within a shorter period. However, when refinancing or rolling over the obligation is not at the discretion of the entity (for example, there is no agreement to refinance), the potential to refinance is not considered and the obligation is classified as current.

When an entity breaches an undertaking under a long-term loan agreement on or before the balance sheet date with the effect that the liability becomes payable on demand, the liability is classified as current, even if the lender has agreed, after the balance sheet date and before the authorisation of the financial statements for issue, not to demand payment as a consequence of the breach. The liability is classified as current because, at the balance sheet date, the entity does not have an unconditional right to defer its settlement for at least 12 months after that date.

However, the liability is classified as non-current if the lender agreed by the balance sheet date to provide a period of grace ending at least 12 months after the balance sheet date, within which the entity can rectify the breach and during which the lender cannot demand immediate repayment.

In respect of loans classified as current liabilities, if the following events occur between the balance sheet date and the date the financial statements are authorised for issue, those events qualify for disclosure as non-adjusting events in accordance with IAS 10 Events after the balance sheet date :

(a)

refinancing on a long-term basis;

(b)

rectification of a breach of a long-term loan agreement; and

(c)

the receipt from the lender of a period of grace to rectify a breach of a long-term loan agreement ending at least 12 months after the balance sheet date.

Information to be presented on the face of the balance sheet

As a minimum, the face of the balance sheet shall include line items that present the following amounts to the extent that they are not presented in accordance with paragraph 68A:

(a)

property, plant and equipment;

(b)

investment property;

(c)

intangible assets;

(d)

financial assets (excluding amounts shown under (e), (h) and (i));

(e)

investments accounted for using the equity method;

(f)

biological assets;

(g)

inventories;

(h)

trade and other receivables;

(i)

cash and cash equivalents;

(j)

trade and other payables;

(k)

provisions;

(l)

financial liabilities (excluding amounts shown under (j) and (k));

(m)

liabilities and assets for current tax, as defined in IAS 12 Income taxes ;

(n)

deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets, as defined in IAS 12;

(o)

minority interest, presented within equity; and

(p)

issued capital and reserves attributable to equity holders of the parent.

68A

The face of the balance sheet shall also include line items that present the following amounts:

(a)

the total of assets classified as held for sale and assets included in disposal groups classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5 Non-current assets held for sale and discontinued operations ; and

(b)

liabilities included in disposal groups classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5.

Additional line items, headings and subtotals shall be presented on the face of the balance sheet when such presentation is relevant to an understanding of the entity's financial position.

When an entity presents current and non-current assets, and current and non-current liabilities, as separate classifications on the face of its balance sheet, it shall not classify deferred tax assets (liabilities) as current assets (liabilities).

This standard does not prescribe the order or format in which items are to be presented. Paragraph 68 simply provides a list of items that are sufficiently different in nature or function to warrant separate presentation on the face of the balance sheet. In addition:

(a)

line items are included when the size, nature or function of an item or aggregation of similar items is such that separate presentation is relevant to an understanding of the entity's financial position; and

(b)

the descriptions used and the ordering of items or aggregation of similar items may be amended according to the nature of the entity and its transactions, to provide information that is relevant to an understanding of the entity's financial position. For example, a financial institution may amend the above descriptions to provide information that is relevant to the operations of a financial institution.

The judgement on whether additional items are presented separately is based on an assessment of:

(a)

the nature and liquidity of assets;

(b)

the function of assets within the entity; and

(c)

the amounts, nature and timing of liabilities.

The use of different measurement bases for different classes of assets suggests that their nature or function differs and, therefore, that they should be presented as separate line items. For example, different classes of property, plant and equipment can be carried at cost or revalued amounts in accordance with IAS 16 Property, plant and equipment .

Information to be presented either on the face of the balance sheet or in the notes

An entity shall disclose, either on the face of the balance sheet or in the notes, further subclassifications of the line items presented, classified in a manner appropriate to the entity's operations.

The detail provided in subclassifications depends on the requirements of IFRSs and on the size, nature and function of the amounts involved. The factors set out in paragraph 72 also are used to decide the basis of subclassification. The disclosures vary for each item, for example:

(a)

items of property, plant and equipment are disaggregated into classes in accordance with IAS 16;

(b)

receivables are disaggregated into amounts receivable from trade customers, receivables from related parties, prepayments and other amounts;

(c)

inventories are subclassified, in accordance with IAS 2 Inventories , into classifications such as merchandise, production supplies, materials, work in progress and finished goods;

(d)

provisions are disaggregated into provisions for employee benefits and other items; and

(e)

contributed equity and reserves are disaggregated into various classes, such as paid-in capital, share premium and reserves.

An entity shall disclose the following, either on the face of the balance sheet or in the notes:

(a)

for each class of share capital:

(i)

the number of shares authorised;

(ii)

the number of shares issued and fully paid, and issued but not fully paid;

(iii)

par value per share, or that the shares have no par value;

(iv)

a reconciliation of the number of shares outstanding at the beginning and at the end of the period;

(v)

the rights, preferences and restrictions attaching to that class, including restrictions on the distribution of dividends and the repayment of capital;

(vi)

shares in the entity held by the entity or by its subsidiaries or associates; and

(vii)

shares reserved for issue under options and contracts for the sale of shares, including the terms and amounts; and

(b)

a description of the nature and purpose of each reserve within equity.

An entity without share capital, such as a partnership or trust, shall disclose information equivalent to that required by paragraph 76(a), showing changes during the period in each category of equity interest, and the rights, preferences and restrictions attaching to each category of equity interest.

Income statement

Profit or loss for the period

All items of income and expense recognised in a period shall be included in profit or loss unless a standard or an interpretation requires otherwise.

Normally, all items of income and expense recognised in a period are included in profit or loss. This includes the effects of changes in accounting estimates. However, circumstances may exist when particular items may be excluded from profit or loss for the current period. IAS 8 deals with two such circumstances: the correction of errors and the effect of changes in accounting policies.

Other standards deal with items that may meet the Framework definitions of income or expense but are usually excluded from profit or loss. Examples include revaluation surpluses (see IAS 16), particular gains and losses arising on translating the financial statements of a foreign operation (see IAS 21) and gains or losses on remeasuring available-for-sale financial assets (see IAS 39).

Information to be presented on the face of the income statement

As a minimum, the face of the income statement shall include line items that present the following amounts for the period:

(a)

revenue;

(b)

finance costs;

(c)

share of the profit or loss of associates and joint ventures accounted for using the equity method;

(d)

tax expense;

(e)

a single amount comprising the total of (i) the post-tax profit or loss of discontinued operations and (ii) the post-tax gain or loss recognised on the measurement to fair value less costs to sell or on the disposal of the assets or disposal group(s) constituting the discontinued operation; and

(f)

profit or loss.

The following items shall be disclosed on the face of the income statement as allocations of profit or loss for the period:

(a)

profit or loss attributable to minority interest; and

(b)

profit or loss attributable to equity holders of the parent.

Additional line items, headings and subtotals shall be presented on the face of the income statement when such presentation is relevant to an understanding of the entity's financial performance.

Because the effects of an entity's various activities, transactions and other events differ in frequency, potential for gain or loss and predictability, disclosing the components of financial performance assists in an understanding of the financial performance achieved and in making projections of future results. Additional line items are included on the face of the income statement, and the descriptions used and the ordering of items are amended when this is necessary to explain the elements of financial performance. Factors to be considered include materiality and the nature and function of the components of income and expenses. For example, a financial institution may amend the descriptions to provide information that is relevant to the operations of a financial institution. Income and expense items are not offset unless the criteria in paragraph 32 are met.

An entity shall not present any items of income and expense as extraordinary items, either on the face of the income statement or in the notes.

Information to be presented either on the face of the income statement or in the notes

When items of income and expense are material, their nature and amount shall be disclosed separately.

Circumstances that would give rise to the separate disclosure of items of income and expense include:

(a)

write-downs of inventories to net realisable value or of property, plant and equipment to recoverable amount, as well as reversals of such write-downs;

(b)

restructurings of the activities of an entity and reversals of any provisions for the costs of restructuring;

(c)

disposals of items of property, plant and equipment;

(d)

disposals of investments;

(e)

discontinued operations;

(f)

litigation settlements; and

(g)

other reversals of provisions.

An entity shall present an analysis of expenses using a classification based on either the nature of expenses or their function within the entity, whichever provides information that is reliable and more relevant.

Entities are encouraged to present the analysis in paragraph 88 on the face of the income statement.

Expenses are subclassified to highlight components of financial performance that may differ in terms of frequency, potential for gain or loss and predictability. This analysis is provided in one of two forms.

The first form of analysis is the nature of expense method. Expenses are aggregated in the income statement according to their nature (for example, depreciation, purchases of materials, transport costs, employee benefits and advertising costs), and are not reallocated among various functions within the entity. This method may be simple to apply because no allocations of expenses to functional classifications are necessary. An example of a classification using the nature of expense method is as follows:

Revenue

Other income

Changes in inventories of finished goods and work in progress

Raw materials and consumables used

Employee benefits expense

Depreciation and amortisation expense

Other expenses

Total expenses

(X)

Profit

The second form of analysis is the function of expense or ‘cost of sales’ method and classifies expenses according to their function as part of cost of sales or, for example, the costs of distribution or administrative activities. At a minimum, an entity discloses its cost of sales under this method separately from other expenses. This method can provide more relevant information to users than the classification of expenses by nature, but allocating costs to functions may require arbitrary allocations and involve considerable judgement. An example of a classification using the function of expense method is as follows:

Revenue

Cost of sales

(X)

Gross profit

Other income

Distribution costs

(X)

Administrative expenses

(X)

Other expenses

(X)

Profit

Entities classifying expenses by function shall disclose additional information on the nature of expenses, including depreciation and amortisation expense and employee benefits expense.

The choice between the function of expense method and the nature of expense method depends on historical and industry factors and the nature of the entity. Both methods provide an indication of those costs that might vary, directly or indirectly, with the level of sales or production of the entity. Because each method of presentation has merit for different types of entities, this standard requires management to select the most relevant and reliable presentation. However, because information on the nature of expenses is useful in predicting future cash flows, additional disclosure is required when the function of expense classification is used. In paragraph 93, ‘employee benefits’ has the same meaning as in IAS 19 Employee benefits .

An entity shall disclose, either on the face of the income statement or the statement of changes in equity, or in the notes, the amount of dividends recognised as distributions to equity holders during the period, and the related amount per share.

Statement of changes in equity

An entity shall present a statement of changes in equity showing on the face of the statement:

(a)

profit or loss for the period;

(b)

each item of income and expense for the period that, as required by other standards or by interpretations, is recognised directly in equity, and the total of these items;

(c)

total income and expense for the period (calculated as the sum of (a) and (b)), showing separately the total amounts attributable to equity holders of the parent and to minority interest; and

(d)

for each component of equity, the effects of changes in accounting policies and corrections of errors recognised in accordance with IAS 8.

A statement of changes in equity that comprises only these items shall be titled a statement of recognised income and expense.

An entity shall also present, either on the face of the statement of changes in equity or in the notes:

(a)

the amounts of transactions with equity holders acting in their capacity as equity holders, showing separately distributions to equity holders;

(b)

the balance of retained earnings (i.e. accumulated profit or loss) at the beginning of the period and at the balance sheet date, and the changes during the period; and

(c)

a reconciliation between the carrying amount of each class of contributed equity and each reserve at the beginning and the end of the period, separately disclosing each change.

Changes in an entity's equity between two balance sheet dates reflect the increase or decrease in its net assets during the period. Except for changes resulting from transactions with equity holders acting in their capacity as equity holders (such as equity contributions, reacquisitions of the entity's own equity instruments and dividends) and transaction costs directly related to such transactions, the overall change in equity during a period represents the total amount of income and expenses, including gains and losses, generated by the entity's activities during that period (whether those items of income and expenses are recognised in profit or loss or directly as changes in equity).

This standard requires all items of income and expense recognised in a period to be included in profit or loss unless another standard or an interpretation requires otherwise. Other standards require some gains and losses (such as revaluation increases and decreases, particular foreign exchange differences, gains or losses on remeasuring available-for-sale financial assets, and related amounts of current tax and deferred tax) to be recognised directly as changes in equity. Because it is important to consider all items of income and expense in assessing changes in an entity's financial position between two balance sheet dates, this standard requires the presentation of a statement of changes in equity that highlights an entity's total income and expenses, including those that are recognised directly in equity.

100

IAS 8 requires retrospective adjustments to effect changes in accounting policies, to the extent practicable, except when the transitional provisions in another standard or an interpretation require otherwise. IAS 8 also requires that restatements to correct errors are made retrospectively, to the extent practicable. Retrospective adjustments and retrospective restatements are made to the balance of retained earnings, except when a standard or an interpretation requires retrospective adjustment of another component of equity. Paragraph 96(d) requires disclosure in the statement of changes in equity of the total adjustment to each component of equity resulting, separately, from changes in accounting policies and from corrections of errors. These adjustments are disclosed for each prior period and the beginning of the period.

101

The requirements in paragraphs 96 and 97 may be met in various ways. One example is a columnar format that reconciles the opening and closing balances of each element within equity. An alternative is to present only the items set out in paragraph 96 in the statement of changes in equity. Under this approach, the items described in paragraph 97 are shown in the notes.

Cash-flow statement

102

Cash flow information provides users of financial statements with a basis to assess the ability of the entity to generate cash and cash equivalents and the needs of the entity to utilise those cash flows. IAS 7 sets out requirements for the presentation of the cash-flow statement and related disclosures.

Notes

Structure

103

The notes shall:

(a)

present information about the basis of preparation of the financial statements and the specific accounting policies used in accordance with paragraphs 108-115;

(b)

disclose the information required by IFRSs that is not presented on the face of the balance sheet, income statement, statement of changes in equity or cash-flow statement; and

(c)

provide additional information that is not presented on the face of the balance sheet, income statement, statement of changes in equity or cash-flow statement, but is relevant to an understanding of any of them.

104

Notes shall, as far as practicable, be presented in a systematic manner. Each item on the face of the balance sheet, income statement, statement of changes in equity and cash-flow statement shall be cross-referenced to any related information in the notes.

105

Notes are normally presented in the following order, which assists users in understanding the financial statements and comparing them with financial statements of other entities:

(a)

a statement of compliance with IFRSs (see paragraph 14);

(b)

a summary of significant accounting policies applied (see paragraph 108);

(c)

supporting information for items presented on the face of the balance sheet, income statement, statement of changes in equity and cash-flow statement, in the order in which each statement and each line item is presented; and

(d)

other disclosures, including:

(i)

contingent liabilities (see IAS 37) and unrecognised contractual commitments; and

(ii)

non-financial disclosures, e.g. the entity's financial risk management objectives and policies (see IFRS 7).

106

In some circumstances, it may be necessary or desirable to vary the ordering of specific items within the notes. For example, information on changes in fair value recognised in profit or loss may be combined with information on maturities of financial instruments, although the former disclosures relate to the income statement and the latter relate to the balance sheet. Nevertheless, a systematic structure for the notes is retained as far as practicable.

107

Notes providing information about the basis of preparation of the financial statements and specific accounting policies may be presented as a separate component of the financial statements.

Disclosure of accounting policies

108

An entity shall disclose in the summary of significant accounting policies:

(a)

the measurement basis (or bases) used in preparing the financial statements; and

(b)

the other accounting policies used that are relevant to an understanding of the financial statements.

109

It is important for users to be informed of the measurement basis or bases used in the financial statements (for example, historical cost, current cost, net realisable value, fair value or recoverable amount) because the basis on which the financial statements are prepared significantly affects their analysis. When more than one measurement basis is used in the financial statements, for example when particular classes of assets are revalued, it is sufficient to provide an indication of the categories of assets and liabilities to which each measurement basis is applied.

110

In deciding whether a particular accounting policy should be disclosed, management considers whether disclosure would assist users in understanding how transactions, other events and conditions are reflected in the reported financial performance and financial position. Disclosure of particular accounting policies is especially useful to users when those policies are selected from alternatives allowed in standards and interpretations. An example is disclosure of whether a venturer recognises its interest in a jointly controlled entity using proportionate consolidation or the equity method (see IAS 31 Interests in joint ventures ). Some standards specifically require disclosure of particular accounting policies, including choices made by management between different policies they allow. For example, IAS 16 requires disclosure of the measurement bases used for classes of property, plant and equipment. IAS 23 Borrowing costs requires disclosure of whether borrowing costs are recognised immediately as an expense or capitalised as part of the cost of qualifying assets.

111

Each entity considers the nature of its operations and the policies that the users of its financial statements would expect to be disclosed for that type of entity. For example, an entity subject to income taxes would be expected to disclose its accounting policies for income taxes, including those applicable to deferred tax liabilities and assets. When an entity has significant foreign operations or transactions in foreign currencies, disclosure of accounting policies for the recognition of foreign exchange gains and losses would be expected. When business combinations have occurred, the policies used for measuring goodwill and minority interest are disclosed.

112

An accounting policy may be significant because of the nature of the entity's operations even if amounts for current and prior periods are not material. It is also appropriate to disclose each significant accounting policy that is not specifically required by IFRSs, but is selected and applied in accordance with IAS 8.

113

An entity shall disclose, in the summary of significant accounting policies or other notes, the judgements, apart from those involving estimations (see paragraph 116), that management has made in the process of applying the entity's accounting policies and that have the most significant effect on the amounts recognised in the financial statements.

114

In the process of applying the entity's accounting policies, management makes various judgements, apart from those involving estimations, that can significantly affect the amounts recognised in the financial statements. For example, management makes judgements in determining:

(a)

whether financial assets are held-to-maturity investments;

(b)

when substantially all the significant risks and rewards of ownership of financial assets and lease assets are transferred to other entities;

(c)

whether, in substance, particular sales of goods are financing arrangements and therefore do not give rise to revenue; and

(d)

whether the substance of the relationship between the entity and a special purpose entity indicates that the special purpose entity is controlled by the entity.

115

Some of the disclosures made in accordance with paragraph 113 are required by other standards. For example, IAS 27 requires an entity to disclose the reasons why the entity's ownership interest does not constitute control, in respect of an investee that is not a subsidiary even though more than half of its voting or potential voting power is owned directly or indirectly through subsidiaries. IAS 40 requires disclosure of the criteria developed by the entity to distinguish investment property from owner-occupied property and from property held for sale in the ordinary course of business, when classification of the property is difficult.

Key sources of estimation uncertainty

116

An entity shall disclose in the notes information about the key assumptions concerning the future, and other key sources of estimation uncertainty at the balance sheet date, that have a significant risk of causing a material adjustment to the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities within the next financial year. In respect of those assets and liabilities, the notes shall include details of:

(a)

their nature; and

(b)

their carrying amount as at the balance sheet date.

117

Determining the carrying amounts of some assets and liabilities requires estimation of the effects of uncertain future events on those assets and liabilities at the balance sheet date. For example, in the absence of recently observed market prices used to measure the following assets and liabilities, future-oriented estimates are necessary to measure the recoverable amount of classes of property, plant and equipment, the effect of technological obsolescence on inventories, provisions subject to the future outcome of litigation in progress, and long-term employee benefit liabilities such as pension obligations. These estimates involve assumptions about such items as the risk adjustment to cash flows or discount rates used, future changes in salaries and future changes in prices affecting other costs.

118

The key assumptions and other key sources of estimation uncertainty disclosed in accordance with paragraph 116 relate to the estimates that require management's most difficult, subjective or complex judgements. As the number of variables and assumptions affecting the possible future resolution of the uncertainties increases, those judgements become more subjective and complex, and the potential for a consequential material adjustment to the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities normally increases accordingly.

119

The disclosures in paragraph 116 are not required for assets and liabilities with a significant risk that their carrying amounts might change materially within the next financial year if, at the balance sheet date, they are measured at fair value based on recently observed market prices (their fair values might change materially within the next financial year but these changes would not arise from assumptions or other sources of estimation uncertainty at the balance sheet date).

120

The disclosures in paragraph 116 are presented in a manner that helps users of financial statements to understand the judgements management makes about the future and about other key sources of estimation uncertainty. The nature and extent of the information provided vary according to the nature of the assumption and other circumstances. Examples of the types of disclosures made are:

(a)

the nature of the assumption or other estimation uncertainty;

(b)

the sensitivity of carrying amounts to the methods, assumptions and estimates underlying their calculation, including the reasons for the sensitivity;

(c)

the expected resolution of an uncertainty and the range of reasonably possible outcomes within the next financial year in respect of the carrying amounts of the assets and liabilities affected; and

(d)

an explanation of changes made to past assumptions concerning those assets and liabilities, if the uncertainty remains unresolved.

121

It is not necessary to disclose budget information or forecasts in making the disclosures in paragraph 116.

122

When it is impracticable to disclose the extent of the possible effects of a key assumption or another key source of estimation uncertainty at the balance sheet date, the entity discloses that it is reasonably possible, based on existing knowledge, that outcomes within the next financial year that are different from assumptions could require a material adjustment to the carrying amount of the asset or liability affected. In all cases, the entity discloses the nature and carrying amount of the specific asset or liability (or class of assets or liabilities) affected by the assumption.

123

The disclosures in paragraph 113 of particular judgements management made in the process of applying the entity's accounting policies do not relate to the disclosures of key sources of estimation uncertainty in paragraph 116.

124

The disclosure of some of the key assumptions that would otherwise be required in accordance with paragraph 116 is required by other standards. For example, IAS 37 requires disclosure, in specified circumstances, of major assumptions concerning future events affecting classes of provisions. IFRS 7 requires disclosure of significant assumptions applied in estimating fair values of financial assets and financial liabilities that are carried at fair value. IAS 16 requires disclosure of significant assumptions applied in estimating fair values of revalued items of property, plant and equipment.

Capital

124A

An entity shall disclose information that enables users of its financial statements to evaluate the entity's objectives, policies and processes for managing capital.

124B

To comply with paragraph 124A, the entity discloses the following:

(a)

qualitative information about its objectives, policies and processes for managing capital, including (but not limited to):

(i)

a description of what it manages as capital;

(ii)

when an entity is subject to externally imposed capital requirements, the nature of those requirements and how those requirements are incorporated into the management of capital; and

(iii)

how it is meeting its objectives for managing capital;

(b)

summary quantitative data about what it manages as capital. Some entities regard some financial liabilities (e.g. some forms of subordinated debt) as part of capital. Other entities regard capital as excluding some components of equity (e.g. components arising from cash flow hedges);

(c)

any changes in (a) and (b) from the previous period;

(d)

whether during the period it complied with any externally imposed capital requirements to which it is subject;

(e)

when the entity has not complied with such externally imposed capital requirements, the consequences of such non-compliance.

These disclosures shall be based on the information provided internally to the entity's key management personnel.

124C

An entity may manage capital in a number of ways and be subject to a number of different capital requirements. For example, a conglomerate may include entities that undertake insurance activities and banking activities, and those entities may also operate in several jurisdictions. When an aggregate disclosure of capital requirements and how capital is managed would not provide useful information or distorts a financial statement user's understanding of an entity's capital resources, the entity shall disclose separate information for each capital requirement to which the entity is subject.

Other disclosures

125

An entity shall disclose in the notes:

(a)

the amount of dividends proposed or declared before the financial statements were authorised for issue but not recognised as a distribution to equity holders during the period, and the related amount per share; and

(b)

the amount of any cumulative preference dividends not recognised.

126

An entity shall disclose the following, if not disclosed elsewhere in information published with the financial statements:

(a)

the domicile and legal form of the entity, its country of incorporation and the address of its registered office (or principal place of business, if different from the registered office);

(b)

a description of the nature of the entity's operations and its principal activities; and

(c)

the name of the parent and the ultimate parent of the group.

EFFECTIVE DATE

127

An entity shall apply this standard for annual periods beginning on or after 1 January 2005. Earlier application is encouraged. If an entity applies this standard for a period beginning before 1 January 2005, it shall disclose that fact.

127A

An entity shall apply the amendment in paragraph 96 for annual periods beginning on or after 1 January 2006. If an entity applies the amendments to IAS 19 Employee benefits — actuarial gains and losses, group plans and disclosures for an earlier period, that amendment shall be applied for that earlier period.

127B

An entity shall apply the requirements of paragraphs 124A-124C for annual periods beginning on or after 1 January 2007. Earlier application is encouraged.

WITHDRAWAL OF IAS 1 (REVISED 1997)

128

This standard supersedes IAS 1 Presentation of financial statements revised in 1997.

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 2

Inventories

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this standard is to prescribe the accounting treatment for inventories. A primary issue in accounting for inventories is the amount of cost to be recognised as an asset and carried forward until the related revenues are recognised. This standard provides guidance on the determination of cost and its subsequent recognition as an expense, including any write-down to net realisable value. It also provides guidance on the cost formulas that are used to assign costs to inventories.

SCOPE

This standard applies to all inventories, except:

(a)

work in progress arising under construction contracts, including directly related service contracts (see IAS 11 Construction contracts );

(b)

financial instruments (see IAS 32 Financial instruments: presentation and IAS 39 Financial instruments: recognition and measurement); and

(c)

biological assets related to agricultural activity and agricultural produce at the point of harvest (see IAS 41 Agriculture ).

This standard does not apply to the measurement of inventories held by:

(a)

producers of agricultural and forest products, agricultural produce after harvest, and minerals and mineral products, to the extent that they are measured at net realisable value in accordance with well-established practices in those industries. When such inventories are measured at net realisable value, changes in that value are recognised in profit or loss in the period of the change;

(b)

commodity broker-traders who measure their inventories at fair value less costs to sell. When such inventories are measured at fair value less costs to sell, changes in fair value less costs to sell are recognised in profit or loss in the period of the change.

The inventories referred to in paragraph 3(a) are measured at net realisable value at certain stages of production. This occurs, for example, when agricultural crops have been harvested or minerals have been extracted and sale is assured under a forward contract or a government guarantee, or when an active market exists and there is a negligible risk of failure to sell. These inventories are excluded from only the measurement requirements of this standard.

Broker-traders are those who buy or sell commodities for others or on their own account. The inventories referred to in paragraph 3(b) are principally acquired with the purpose of selling in the near future and generating a profit from fluctuations in price or broker-traders' margin. When these inventories are measured at fair value less costs to sell, they are excluded from only the measurement requirements of this standard.

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

Inventories are assets:

(a)

held for sale in the ordinary course of business;

(b)

in the process of production for such sale; or

(c)

in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in the production process or in the rendering of services.

Net realisable value is the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of business less the estimated costs of completion and the estimated costs necessary to make the sale.

Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, or a liability settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm's length transaction.

Net realisable value refers to the net amount that an entity expects to realise from the sale of inventory in the ordinary course of business. Fair value reflects the amount for which the same inventory could be exchanged between knowledgeable and willing buyers and sellers in the marketplace. The former is an entity-specific value; the latter is not. Net realisable value for inventories may not equal fair value less costs to sell.

Inventories encompass goods purchased and held for resale, including, for example, merchandise purchased by a retailer and held for resale, or land and other property held for resale. Inventories also encompass finished goods produced, or work in progress being produced, by the entity and include materials and supplies awaiting use in the production process. In the case of a service provider, inventories include the costs of the service, as described in paragraph 19, for which the entity has not yet recognised the related revenue (see IAS 18 Revenue ).

MEASUREMENT OF INVENTORIES

Inventories shall be measured at the lower of cost and net realisable value.

Cost of inventories

The cost of inventories shall comprise all costs of purchase, costs of conversion and other costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition.

Costs of purchase

The costs of purchase of inventories comprise the purchase price, import duties and other taxes (other than those subsequently recoverable by the entity from the taxing authorities), and transport, handling and other costs directly attributable to the acquisition of finished goods, materials and services. Trade discounts, rebates and other similar items are deducted in determining the costs of purchase.

Costs of conversion

The costs of conversion of inventories include costs directly related to the units of production, such as direct labour. They also include a systematic allocation of fixed and variable production overheads that are incurred in converting materials into finished goods. Fixed production overheads are those indirect costs of production that remain relatively constant regardless of the volume of production, such as depreciation and maintenance of factory buildings and equipment, and the cost of factory management and administration. Variable production overheads are those indirect costs of production that vary directly, or nearly directly, with the volume of production, such as indirect materials and indirect labour.

The allocation of fixed production overheads to the costs of conversion is based on the normal capacity of the production facilities. Normal capacity is the production expected to be achieved on average over a number of periods or seasons under normal circumstances, taking into account the loss of capacity resulting from planned maintenance. The actual level of production may be used if it approximates normal capacity. The amount of fixed overhead allocated to each unit of production is not increased as a consequence of low production or idle plant. Unallocated overheads are recognised as an expense in the period in which they are incurred. In periods of abnormally high production, the amount of fixed overhead allocated to each unit of production is decreased so that inventories are not measured above cost. Variable production overheads are allocated to each unit of production on the basis of the actual use of the production facilities.

A production process may result in more than one product being produced simultaneously. This is the case, for example, when joint products are produced or when there is a main product and a by-product. When the costs of conversion of each product are not separately identifiable, they are allocated between the products on a rational and consistent basis. The allocation may be based, for example, on the relative sales value of each product either at the stage in the production process when the products become separately identifiable, or at the completion of production. Most by-products, by their nature, are immaterial. When this is the case, they are often measured at net realisable value and this value is deducted from the cost of the main product. As a result, the carrying amount of the main product is not materially different from its cost.

Other costs

Other costs are included in the cost of inventories only to the extent that they are incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition. For example, it may be appropriate to include non-production overheads or the costs of designing products for specific customers in the cost of inventories.

Examples of costs excluded from the cost of inventories and recognised as expenses in the period in which they are incurred are:

(a)

abnormal amounts of wasted materials, labour or other production costs;

(b)

storage costs, unless those costs are necessary in the production process before a further production stage;

(c)

administrative overheads that do not contribute to bringing inventories to their present location and condition; and

(d)

selling costs.

IAS 23 Borrowing costs identifies limited circumstances where borrowing costs are included in the cost of inventories.

An entity may purchase inventories on deferred settlement terms. When the arrangement effectively contains a financing element, that element, for example a difference between the purchase price for normal credit terms and the amount paid, is recognised as interest expense over the period of the financing.

Cost of inventories of a service provider

To the extent that service providers have inventories, they measure them at the costs of their production. These costs consist primarily of the labour and other costs of personnel directly engaged in providing the service, including supervisory personnel, and attributable overheads. Labour and other costs relating to sales and general administrative personnel are not included but are recognised as expenses in the period in which they are incurred. The cost of inventories of a service provider does not include profit margins or non-attributable overheads that are often factored into prices charged by service providers.

Cost of agricultural produce harvested from biological assets

In accordance with IAS 41 Agriculture inventories comprising agricultural produce that an entity has harvested from its biological assets are measured on initial recognition at their fair value less estimated point-of-sale costs at the point of harvest. This is the cost of the inventories at that date for application of this standard.

Techniques for the measurement of cost

Techniques for the measurement of the cost of inventories, such as the standard cost method or the retail method, may be used for convenience if the results approximate cost. Standard costs take into account normal levels of materials and supplies, labour, efficiency and capacity utilisation. They are regularly reviewed and, if necessary, revised in the light of current conditions.

The retail method is often used in the retail industry for measuring inventories of large numbers of rapidly changing items with similar margins for which it is impracticable to use other costing methods. The cost of the inventory is determined by reducing the sales value of the inventory by the appropriate percentage gross margin. The percentage used takes into consideration inventory that has been marked down to below its original selling price. An average percentage for each retail department is often used.

Cost formulas

The cost of inventories of items that are not ordinarily interchangeable and goods or services produced and segregated for specific projects shall be assigned by using specific identification of their individual costs.

Specific identification of cost means that specific costs are attributed to identified items of inventory. This is the appropriate treatment for items that are segregated for a specific project, regardless of whether they have been bought or produced. However, specific identification of costs is inappropriate when there are large numbers of items of inventory that are ordinarily interchangeable. In such circumstances, the method of selecting those items that remain in inventories could be used to obtain predetermined effects on profit or loss.

The cost of inventories, other than those dealt with in paragraph 23, shall be assigned by using the first-in, first-out (FIFO) or weighted average cost formula. An entity shall use the same cost formula for all inventories having a similar nature and use to the entity. For inventories with a different nature or use, different cost formulas may be justified.

For example, inventories used in one operating segment may have a use to the entity different from the same type of inventories used in another operating segment. However, a difference in geographical location of inventories (or in the respective tax rules), by itself, is not sufficient to justify the use of different cost formulas.

The FIFO formula assumes that the items of inventory that were purchased or produced first are sold first, and consequently the items remaining in inventory at the end of the period are those most recently purchased or produced. Under the weighted average cost formula, the cost of each item is determined from the weighted average of the cost of similar items at the beginning of a period and the cost of similar items purchased or produced during the period. The average may be calculated on a periodic basis, or as each additional shipment is received, depending upon the circumstances of the entity.

Net realisable value

The cost of inventories may not be recoverable if those inventories are damaged, if they have become wholly or partially obsolete, or if their selling prices have declined. The cost of inventories may also not be recoverable if the estimated costs of completion or the estimated costs to be incurred to make the sale have increased. The practice of writing inventories down below cost to net realisable value is consistent with the view that assets should not be carried in excess of amounts expected to be realised from their sale or use.

Inventories are usually written down to net realisable value item by item. In some circumstances, however, it may be appropriate to group similar or related items. This may be the case with items of inventory relating to the same product line that have similar purposes or end uses, are produced and marketed in the same geographical area, and cannot be practicably evaluated separately from other items in that product line. It is not appropriate to write inventories down on the basis of a classification of inventory, for example, finished goods, or all the inventories in a particular operating segment. Service providers generally accumulate costs in respect of each service for which a separate selling price is charged. Therefore, each such service is treated as a separate item.

Estimates of net realisable value are based on the most reliable evidence available at the time the estimates are made, of the amount the inventories are expected to realise. These estimates take into consideration fluctuations of price or cost directly relating to events occurring after the end of the period to the extent that such events confirm conditions existing at the end of the period.

Estimates of net realisable value also take into consideration the purpose for which the inventory is held. For example, the net realisable value of the quantity of inventory held to satisfy firm sales or service contracts is based on the contract price. If the sales contracts are for less than the inventory quantities held, the net realisable value of the excess is based on general selling prices. Provisions may arise from firm sales contracts in excess of inventory quantities held or from firm purchase contracts. Such provisions are dealt with under IAS 37 Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets .

Materials and other supplies held for use in the production of inventories are not written down below cost if the finished products in which they will be incorporated are expected to be sold at or above cost. However, when a decline in the price of materials indicates that the cost of the finished products exceeds net realisable value, the materials are written down to net realisable value. In such circumstances, the replacement cost of the materials may be the best available measure of their net realisable value.

A new assessment is made of net realisable value in each subsequent period. When the circumstances that previously caused inventories to be written down below cost no longer exist or when there is clear evidence of an increase in net realisable value because of changed economic circumstances, the amount of the write-down is reversed (i.e. the reversal is limited to the amount of the original write-down) so that the new carrying amount is the lower of the cost and the revised net realisable value. This occurs, for example, when an item of inventory that is carried at net realisable value, because its selling price has declined, is still on hand in a subsequent period and its selling price has increased.

RECOGNITION AS AN EXPENSE

When inventories are sold, the carrying amount of those inventories shall be recognised as an expense in the period in which the related revenue is recognised. The amount of any write-down of inventories to net realisable value and all losses of inventories shall be recognised as an expense in the period the write-down or loss occurs. The amount of any reversal of any write-down of inventories, arising from an increase in net realisable value, shall be recognised as a reduction in the amount of inventories recognised as an expense in the period in which the reversal occurs.

Some inventories may be allocated to other asset accounts, for example, inventory used as a component of self-constructed property, plant or equipment. Inventories allocated to another asset in this way are recognised as an expense during the useful life of that asset.

DISCLOSURE

The financial statements shall disclose:

(a)

the accounting policies adopted in measuring inventories, including the cost formula used;

(b)

the total carrying amount of inventories and the carrying amount in classifications appropriate to the entity;

(c)

the carrying amount of inventories carried at fair value less costs to sell;

(d)

the amount of inventories recognised as an expense during the period;

(e)

the amount of any write-down of inventories recognised as an expense in the period in accordance with paragraph 34;

(f)

the amount of any reversal of any write-down that is recognised as a reduction in the amount of inventories recognised as expense in the period in accordance with paragraph 34;

(g)

the circumstances or events that led to the reversal of a write-down of inventories in accordance with paragraph 34; and

(h)

the carrying amount of inventories pledged as security for liabilities.

Information about the carrying amounts held in different classifications of inventories and the extent of the changes in these assets is useful to financial statement users. Common classifications of inventories are merchandise, production supplies, materials, work in progress and finished goods. The inventories of a service provider may be described as work in progress.

The amount of inventories recognised as an expense during the period, which is often referred to as cost of sales, consists of those costs previously included in the measurement of inventory that has now been sold and unallocated production overheads and abnormal amounts of production costs of inventories. The circumstances of the entity may also warrant the inclusion of other amounts, such as distribution costs.

Some entities adopt a format for profit or loss that results in amounts being disclosed other than the cost of inventories recognised as an expense during the period. Under this format, an entity presents an analysis of expenses using a classification based on the nature of expenses. In this case, the entity discloses the costs recognised as an expense for raw materials and consumables, labour costs and other costs together with the amount of the net change in inventories for the period.

EFFECTIVE DATE

WITHDRAWAL OF OTHER PRONOUNCEMENTS

This standard supersedes IAS 2 Inventories (revised in 1993).

This standard supersedes SIC-1 Consistency — different cost formulas for inventories .

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 7

Cash-flow statements

OBJECTIVE

Information about the cash flows of an entity is useful in providing users of financial statements with a basis to assess the ability of the entity to generate cash and cash equivalents and the needs of the entity to utilise those cash flows. The economic decisions that are taken by users require an evaluation of the ability of an entity to generate cash and cash equivalents and the timing and certainty of their generation.

The objective of this standard is to require the provision of information about the historical changes in cash and cash equivalents of an entity by means of a cash-flow statement which classifies cash flows during the period from operating, investing and financing activities.

SCOPE

An entity shall prepare a cash-flow statement in accordance with the requirements of this standard and shall present it as an integral part of its financial statements for each period for which financial statements are presented.

This standard supersedes IAS 7 Statement of changes in financial position , approved in July 1977.

Users of an entity's financial statements are interested in how the entity generates and uses cash and cash equivalents. This is the case regardless of the nature of the entity's activities and irrespective of whether cash can be viewed as the product of the entity, as may be the case with a financial institution. Entities need cash for essentially the same reasons however different their principal revenue-producing activities might be. They need cash to conduct their operations, to pay their obligations, and to provide returns to their investors. Accordingly, this standard requires all entities to present a cash-flow statement.

BENEFITS OF CASH FLOW INFORMATION

A cash-flow statement, when used in conjunction with the rest of the financial statements, provides information that enables users to evaluate the changes in net assets of an entity, its financial structure (including its liquidity and solvency) and its ability to affect the amounts and timing of cash flows in order to adapt to changing circumstances and opportunities. Cash flow information is useful in assessing the ability of the entity to generate cash and cash equivalents and enables users to develop models to assess and compare the present value of the future cash flows of different entities. It also enhances the comparability of the reporting of operating performance by different entities because it eliminates the effects of using different accounting treatments for the same transactions and events.

Historical cash flow information is often used as an indicator of the amount, timing and certainty of future cash flows. It is also useful in checking the accuracy of past assessments of future cash flows and in examining the relationship between profitability and net cash flow and the impact of changing prices.

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

Cash comprises cash on hand and demand deposits.

Cash equivalents are short-term, highly liquid investments that are readily convertible to known amounts of cash and which are subject to an insignificant risk of changes in value.

Cash flows are inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents.

Operating activities are the principal revenue-producing activities of the entity and other activities that are not investing or financing activities.

Investing activities are the acquisition and disposal of long-term assets and other investments not included in cash equivalents.

Financing activities are activities that result in changes in the size and composition of the contributed equity and borrowings of the entity.

Cash and cash equivalents

Cash equivalents are held for the purpose of meeting short-term cash commitments rather than for investment or other purposes. For an investment to qualify as a cash equivalent it must be readily convertible to a known amount of cash and be subject to an insignificant risk of changes in value. Therefore, an investment normally qualifies as a cash equivalent only when it has a short maturity of, say, three months or less from the date of acquisition. Equity investments are excluded from cash equivalents unless they are, in substance, cash equivalents, for example in the case of preferred shares acquired within a short period of their maturity and with a specified redemption date.

Bank borrowings are generally considered to be financing activities. However, in some countries, bank overdrafts which are repayable on demand form an integral part of an entity's cash management. In these circumstances, bank overdrafts are included as a component of cash and cash equivalents. A characteristic of such banking arrangements is that the bank balance often fluctuates from being positive to overdrawn.

Cash flows exclude movements between items that constitute cash or cash equivalents because these components are part of the cash management of an entity rather than part of its operating, investing and financing activities. Cash management includes the investment of excess cash in cash equivalents.

PRESENTATION OF A CASH-FLOW STATEMENT

The cash-flow statement shall report cash flows during the period classified by operating, investing and financing activities.

An entity presents its cash flows from operating, investing and financing activities in a manner which is most appropriate to its business. Classification by activity provides information that allows users to assess the impact of those activities on the financial position of the entity and the amount of its cash and cash equivalents. This information may also be used to evaluate the relationships among those activities.

A single transaction may include cash flows that are classified differently. For example, when the cash repayment of a loan includes both interest and capital, the interest element may be classified as an operating activity and the capital element is classified as a financing activity.

Operating activities

The amount of cash flows arising from operating activities is a key indicator of the extent to which the operations of the entity have generated sufficient cash flows to repay loans, maintain the operating capability of the entity, pay dividends and make new investments without recourse to external sources of financing. Information about the specific components of historical operating cash flows is useful, in conjunction with other information, in forecasting future operating cash flows.

Cash flows from operating activities are primarily derived from the principal revenue-producing activities of the entity. Therefore, they generally result from the transactions and other events that enter into the determination of profit or loss. Examples of cash flows from operating activities are:

(a)

cash receipts from the sale of goods and the rendering of services;

(b)

cash receipts from royalties, fees, commissions and other revenue;

(c)

cash payments to suppliers for goods and services;

(d)

cash payments to and on behalf of employees;

(e)

cash receipts and cash payments of an insurance entity for premiums and claims, annuities and other policy benefits;

(f)

cash payments or refunds of income taxes unless they can be specifically identified with financing and investing activities; and

(g)

cash receipts and payments from contracts held for dealing or trading purposes.

Some transactions, such as the sale of an item of plant, may give rise to a gain or loss which is included in the determination of profit or loss. However, the cash flows relating to such transactions are cash flows from investing activities.

An entity may hold securities and loans for dealing or trading purposes, in which case they are similar to inventory acquired specifically for resale. Therefore, cash flows arising from the purchase and sale of dealing or trading securities are classified as operating activities. Similarly, cash advances and loans made by financial institutions are usually classified as operating activities since they relate to the main revenue-producing activity of that entity.

Investing activities

The separate disclosure of cash flows arising from investing activities is important because the cash flows represent the extent to which expenditures have been made for resources intended to generate future income and cash flows. Examples of cash flows arising from investing activities are:

(a)

cash payments to acquire property, plant and equipment, intangibles and other long-term assets. These payments include those relating to capitalised development costs and self-constructed property, plant and equipment;

(b)

cash receipts from sales of property, plant and equipment, intangibles and other long-term assets;

(c)

cash payments to acquire equity or debt instruments of other entities and interests in joint ventures (other than payments for those instruments considered to be cash equivalents or those held for dealing or trading purposes);

(d)

cash receipts from sales of equity or debt instruments of other entities and interests in joint ventures (other than receipts for those instruments considered to be cash equivalents and those held for dealing or trading purposes);

(e)

cash advances and loans made to other parties (other than advances and loans made by a financial institution);

(f)

cash receipts from the repayment of advances and loans made to other parties (other than advances and loans of a financial institution);

(g)

cash payments for futures contracts, forward contracts, option contracts and swap contracts except when the contracts are held for dealing or trading purposes, or the payments are classified as financing activities; and

(h)

cash receipts from futures contracts, forward contracts, option contracts and swap contracts except when the contracts are held for dealing or trading purposes, or the receipts are classified as financing activities.

When a contract is accounted for as a hedge of an identifiable position, the cash flows of the contract are classified in the same manner as the cash flows of the position being hedged.

Financing activities

The separate disclosure of cash flows arising from financing activities is important because it is useful in predicting claims on future cash flows by providers of capital to the entity. Examples of cash flows arising from financing activities are:

(a)

cash proceeds from issuing shares or other equity instruments;

(b)

cash payments to owners to acquire or redeem the entity's shares;

(c)

cash proceeds from issuing debentures, loans, notes, bonds, mortgages and other short or long-term borrowings;

(d)

cash repayments of amounts borrowed; and

(e)

cash payments by a lessee for the reduction of the outstanding liability relating to a finance lease.

REPORTING CASH FLOWS FROM OPERATING ACTIVITIES

An entity shall report cash flows from operating activities using either:

(a)

the direct method, whereby major classes of gross cash receipts and gross cash payments are disclosed; or

(b)

the indirect method, whereby profit or loss is adjusted for the effects of transactions of a non-cash nature, any deferrals or accruals of past or future operating cash receipts or payments, and items of income or expense associated with investing or financing cash flows.

Entities are encouraged to report cash flows from operating activities using the direct method. The direct method provides information which may be useful in estimating future cash flows and which is not available under the indirect method. Under the direct method, information about major classes of gross cash receipts and gross cash payments may be obtained either:

(a)

from the accounting records of the entity; or

(b)

by adjusting sales, cost of sales (interest and similar income and interest expense and similar charges for a financial institution) and other items in the income statement for:

(i)

changes during the period in inventories and operating receivables and payables;

(ii)

other non-cash items; and

(iii)

other items for which the cash effects are investing or financing cash flows.

Under the indirect method, the net cash flow from operating activities is determined by adjusting profit or loss for the effects of:

(a)

changes during the period in inventories and operating receivables and payables;

(b)

non-cash items such as depreciation, provisions, deferred taxes, unrealised foreign currency gains and losses, undistributed profits of associates, and minority interests; and

(c)

all other items for which the cash effects are investing or financing cash flows.

Alternatively, the net cash flow from operating activities may be presented under the indirect method by showing the revenues and expenses disclosed in the income statement and the changes during the period in inventories and operating receivables and payables.

REPORTING CASH FLOWS FROM INVESTING AND FINANCING ACTIVITIES

An entity shall report separately major classes of gross cash receipts and gross cash payments arising from investing and financing activities, except to the extent that cash flows described in paragraphs 22 and 24 are reported on a net basis.

REPORTING CASH FLOWS ON A NET BASIS

Cash flows arising from the following operating, investing or financing activities may be reported on a net basis:

(a)

cash receipts and payments on behalf of customers when the cash flows reflect the activities of the customer rather than those of the entity; and

(b)

cash receipts and payments for items in which the turnover is quick, the amounts are large, and the maturities are short.

Examples of cash receipts and payments referred to in paragraph 22(a) are:

(a)

the acceptance and repayment of demand deposits of a bank;

(b)

funds held for customers by an investment entity; and

(c)

rents collected on behalf of, and paid over to, the owners of properties.

Examples of cash receipts and payments referred to in paragraph 22(b) are advances made for, and the repayment of:

(a)

principal amounts relating to credit card customers;

(b)

the purchase and sale of investments; and

(c)

other short-term borrowings, for example, those which have a maturity period of three months or less.

Cash flows arising from each of the following activities of a financial institution may be reported on a net basis:

(a)

cash receipts and payments for the acceptance and repayment of deposits with a fixed maturity date;

(b)

the placement of deposits with and withdrawal of deposits from other financial institutions; and

(c)

cash advances and loans made to customers and the repayment of those advances and loans.

FOREIGN CURRENCY CASH FLOWS

Cash flows arising from transactions in a foreign currency shall be recorded in an entity's functional currency by applying to the foreign currency amount the exchange rate between the functional currency and the foreign currency at the date of the cash flow.

The cash flows of a foreign subsidiary shall be translated at the exchange rates between the functional currency and the foreign currency at the dates of the cash flows.

Cash flows denominated in a foreign currency are reported in a manner consistent with IAS 21 The effects of changes in foreign exchange rates . This permits the use of an exchange rate that approximates the actual rate. For example, a weighted average exchange rate for a period may be used for recording foreign currency transactions or the translation of the cash flows of a foreign subsidiary. However, IAS 21 does not permit use of the exchange rate at the balance sheet date when translating the cash flows of a foreign subsidiary.

Unrealised gains and losses arising from changes in foreign currency exchange rates are not cash flows. However, the effect of exchange rate changes on cash and cash equivalents held or due in a foreign currency is reported in the cash-flow statement in order to reconcile cash and cash equivalents at the beginning and the end of the period. This amount is presented separately from cash flows from operating, investing and financing activities and includes the differences, if any, had those cash flows been reported at end of period exchange rates.

[Deleted]

INTEREST AND DIVIDENDS

Cash flows from interest and dividends received and paid shall each be disclosed separately. Each shall be classified in a consistent manner from period to period as either operating, investing or financing activities.

The total amount of interest paid during a period is disclosed in the cash-flow statement whether it has been recognised as an expense in the income statement or capitalised in accordance with the allowed alternative treatment in IAS 23 Borrowing costs .

Interest paid and interest and dividends received are usually classified as operating cash flows for a financial institution. However, there is no consensus on the classification of these cash flows for other entities. Interest paid and interest and dividends received may be classified as operating cash flows because they enter into the determination of profit or loss. Alternatively, interest paid and interest and dividends received may be classified as financing cash flows and investing cash flows respectively, because they are costs of obtaining financial resources or returns on investments.

Dividends paid may be classified as a financing cash flow because they are a cost of obtaining financial resources. Alternatively, dividends paid may be classified as a component of cash flows from operating activities in order to assist users to determine the ability of an entity to pay dividends out of operating cash flows.

TAXES ON INCOME

Cash flows arising from taxes on income shall be separately disclosed and shall be classified as cash flows from operating activities unless they can be specifically identified with financing and investing activities.

Taxes on income arise on transactions that give rise to cash flows that are classified as operating, investing or financing activities in a cash-flow statement. While tax expense may be readily identifiable with investing or financing activities, the related tax cash flows are often impracticable to identify and may arise in a different period from the cash flows of the underlying transaction. Therefore, taxes paid are usually classified as cash flows from operating activities. However, when it is practicable to identify the tax cash flow with an individual transaction that gives rise to cash flows that are classified as investing or financing activities the tax cash flow is classified as an investing or financing activity as appropriate. When tax cash flows are allocated over more than one class of activity, the total amount of taxes paid is disclosed.

INVESTMENTS IN SUBSIDIARIES, ASSOCIATES AND JOINT VENTURES

When accounting for an investment in an associate or a subsidiary accounted for by use of the equity or cost method, an investor restricts its reporting in the cash-flow statement to the cash flows between itself and the investee, for example, to dividends and advances.

An entity which reports its interest in a jointly controlled entity (see IAS 31 Interests in joint ventures ) using proportionate consolidation, includes in its consolidated cash-flow statement its proportionate share of the jointly controlled entity's cash flows. An entity which reports such an interest using the equity method includes in its cash-flow statement the cash flows in respect of its investments in the jointly controlled entity, and distributions and other payments or receipts between it and the jointly controlled entity.

ACQUISITIONS AND DISPOSALS OF SUBSIDIARIES AND OTHER BUSINESS UNITS

The aggregate cash flows arising from acquisitions and from disposals of subsidiaries or other business units shall be presented separately and classified as investing activities.

An entity shall disclose, in aggregate, in respect of both acquisitions and disposals of subsidiaries or other business units during the period each of the following:

(a)

the total purchase or disposal consideration;

(b)

the portion of the purchase or disposal consideration discharged by means of cash and cash equivalents;

(c)

the amount of cash and cash equivalents in the subsidiary or business unit acquired or disposed of; and

(d)

the amount of the assets and liabilities other than cash or cash equivalents in the subsidiary or business unit acquired or disposed of, summarised by each major category.

The separate presentation of the cash flow effects of acquisitions and disposals of subsidiaries and other business units as single line items, together with the separate disclosure of the amounts of assets and liabilities acquired or disposed of, helps to distinguish those cash flows from the cash flows arising from the other operating, investing and financing activities. The cash flow effects of disposals are not deducted from those of acquisitions.

The aggregate amount of the cash paid or received as purchase or sale consideration is reported in the cash-flow statement net of cash and cash equivalents acquired or disposed of.

NON-CASH TRANSACTIONS

Investing and financing transactions that do not require the use of cash or cash equivalents shall be excluded from a cash-flow statement. Such transactions shall be disclosed elsewhere in the financial statements in a way that provides all the relevant information about these investing and financing activities.

Many investing and financing activities do not have a direct impact on current cash flows although they do affect the capital and asset structure of an entity. The exclusion of non-cash transactions from the cash-flow statement is consistent with the objective of a cash-flow statement as these items do not involve cash flows in the current period. Examples of non-cash transactions are:

(a)

the acquisition of assets either by assuming directly related liabilities or by means of a finance lease;

(b)

the acquisition of an entity by means of an equity issue; and

(c)

the conversion of debt to equity.

COMPONENTS OF CASH AND CASH EQUIVALENTS

An entity shall disclose the components of cash and cash equivalents and shall present a reconciliation of the amounts in its cash-flow statement with the equivalent items reported in the balance sheet.

In view of the variety of cash management practices and banking arrangements around the world and in order to comply with IAS 1 Presentation of financial statements , an entity discloses the policy which it adopts in determining the composition of cash and cash equivalents.

The effect of any change in the policy for determining components of cash and cash equivalents, for example, a change in the classification of financial instruments previously considered to be part of an entity's investment portfolio, is reported in accordance with IAS 8 Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and errors .

OTHER DISCLOSURES

An entity shall disclose, together with a commentary by management, the amount of significant cash and cash equivalent balances held by the entity that are not available for use by the group.

There are various circumstances in which cash and cash equivalent balances held by an entity are not available for use by the group. Examples include cash and cash equivalent balances held by a subsidiary that operates in a country where exchange controls or other legal restrictions apply when the balances are not available for general use by the parent or other subsidiaries.

Additional information may be relevant to users in understanding the financial position and liquidity of an entity. Disclosure of this information, together with a commentary by management, is encouraged and may include:

(a)

the amount of undrawn borrowing facilities that may be available for future operating activities and to settle capital commitments, indicating any restrictions on the use of these facilities;

(b)

the aggregate amounts of the cash flows from each of operating, investing and financing activities related to interests in joint ventures reported using proportionate consolidation;

(c)

the aggregate amount of cash flows that represent increases in operating capacity separately from those cash flows that are required to maintain operating capacity; and

(d)

the amount of the cash flows arising from the operating, investing and financing activities of each reportable segment (see IFRS 8 Operating segments ).

The separate disclosure of cash flows that represent increases in operating capacity and cash flows that are required to maintain operating capacity is useful in enabling the user to determine whether the entity is investing adequately in the maintenance of its operating capacity. An entity that does not invest adequately in the maintenance of its operating capacity may be prejudicing future profitability for the sake of current liquidity and distributions to owners.

The disclosure of segmental cash flows enables users to obtain a better understanding of the relationship between the cash flows of the business as a whole and those of its component parts and the availability and variability of segmental cash flows.

EFFECTIVE DATE

This standard becomes operative for financial statements covering periods beginning on or after 1 January 1994.

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 8

Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and errors

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this standard is to prescribe the criteria for selecting and changing accounting policies, together with the accounting treatment and disclosure of changes in accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and corrections of errors. The standard is intended to enhance the relevance and reliability of an entity's financial statements, and the comparability of those financial statements over time and with the financial statements of other entities.

Disclosure requirements for accounting policies, except those for changes in accounting policies, are set out in IAS 1 Presentation of financial statements .

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied in selecting and applying accounting policies, and accounting for changes in accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and corrections of prior period errors.

The tax effects of corrections of prior period errors and of retrospective adjustments made to apply changes in accounting policies are accounted for and disclosed in accordance with IAS 12 Income taxes .

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

Accounting policies are the specific principles, bases, conventions, rules and practices applied by an entity in preparing and presenting financial statements.

A change in accounting estimate is an adjustment of the carrying amount of an asset or a liability, or the amount of the periodic consumption of an asset, that results from the assessment of the present status of, and expected future benefits and obligations associated with, assets and liabilities. Changes in accounting estimates result from new information or new developments and, accordingly, are not corrections of errors.

International financial reporting standards (IFRSs) are standards and interpretations adopted by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). They comprise:

(a)

international financial reporting standards;

(b)

international accounting standards; and

(c)

interpretations originated by the International Financial Reporting Interpretations Committee (IFRIC) or the former Standing Interpretations Committee (SIC).

Prior period errors are omissions from, and misstatements in, the entity's financial statements for one or more prior periods arising from a failure to use, or misuse of, reliable information that:

(a)

was available when financial statements for those periods were authorised for issue; and

(b)

could reasonably be expected to have been obtained and taken into account in the preparation and presentation of those financial statements.

Such errors include the effects of mathematical mistakes, mistakes in applying accounting policies, oversights or misinterpretations of facts, and fraud.

Retrospective application is applying a new accounting policy to transactions, other events and conditions as if that policy had always been applied.

Retrospective restatement is correcting the recognition, measurement and disclosure of amounts of elements of financial statements as if a prior period error had never occurred.

Impracticable Applying a requirement is impracticable when the entity cannot apply it after making every reasonable effort to do so. For a particular prior period, it is impracticable to apply a change in an accounting policy retrospectively or to make a retrospective restatement to correct an error if:

(a)

the effects of the retrospective application or retrospective restatement are not determinable;

(b)

the retrospective application or retrospective restatement requires assumptions about what management's intent would have been in that period; or

(c)

the retrospective application or retrospective restatement requires significant estimates of amounts and it is impossible to distinguish objectively information about those estimates that:

(i)

provides evidence of circumstances that existed on the date(s) as at which those amounts are to be recognised, measured or disclosed; and

(ii)

would have been available when the financial statements for that prior period were authorised for issue;

from other information.

Prospective application of a change in accounting policy and of recognising the effect of a change in an accounting estimate, respectively, are:

(a)

applying the new accounting policy to transactions, other events and conditions occurring after the date as at which the policy is changed; and

(b)

recognising the effect of the change in the accounting estimate in the current and future periods affected by the change.

ACCOUNTING POLICIES

Selection and application of accounting policies

When a standard or an interpretation specifically applies to a transaction, other event or condition, the accounting policy or policies applied to that item shall be determined by applying the standard or interpretation and considering any relevant Implementation Guidance issued by the IASB for the standard or interpretation.

IFRSs set out accounting policies that the IASB has concluded result in financial statements containing relevant and reliable information about the transactions, other events and conditions to which they apply. Those policies need not be applied when the effect of applying them is immaterial. However, it is inappropriate to make, or leave uncorrected, immaterial departures from IFRSs to achieve a particular presentation of an entity's financial position, financial performance or cash flows.

Implementation Guidance for Standards issued by the IASB does not form part of those standards, and therefore does not contain requirements for financial statements.

In the absence of a standard or an interpretation that specifically applies to a transaction, other event or condition, management shall use its judgement in developing and applying an accounting policy that results in information that is:

(a)

relevant to the economic decision-making needs of users; and

(b)

reliable, in that the financial statements:

(i)

represent faithfully the financial position, financial performance and cash flows of the entity;

(ii)

reflect the economic substance of transactions, other events and conditions, and not merely the legal form;

(iii)

are neutral, i.e. free from bias;

(iv)

are prudent; and

(v)

are complete in all material respects.

In making the judgement described in paragraph 10, management shall refer to, and consider the applicability of, the following sources in descending order:

(a)

the requirements and guidance in standards and interpretations dealing with similar and related issues; and

(b)

the definitions, recognition criteria and measurement concepts for assets, liabilities, income and expenses in the Framework .

In making the judgement described in paragraph 10, management may also consider the most recent pronouncements of other standard-setting bodies that use a similar conceptual framework to develop accounting standards, other accounting literature and accepted industry practices, to the extent that these do not conflict with the sources in paragraph 11.

Consistency of accounting policies

An entity shall select and apply its accounting policies consistently for similar transactions, other events and conditions, unless a standard or an interpretation specifically requires or permits categorisation of items for which different policies may be appropriate. If a standard or an interpretation requires or permits such categorisation, an appropriate accounting policy shall be selected and applied consistently to each category.

Changes in accounting policies

An entity shall change an accounting policy only if the change:

(a)

is required by a standard or an interpretation; or

(b)

results in the financial statements providing reliable and more relevant information about the effects of transactions, other events or conditions on the entity's financial position, financial performance or cash flows.

Users of financial statements need to be able to compare the financial statements of an entity over time to identify trends in its financial position, financial performance and cash flows. Therefore, the same accounting policies are applied within each period and from one period to the next unless a change in accounting policy meets one of the criteria in paragraph 14.

The following are not changes in accounting policies:

(a)

the application of an accounting policy for transactions, other events or conditions that differ in substance from those previously occurring; and

(b)

the application of a new accounting policy for transactions, other events or conditions that did not occur previously or were immaterial.

The initial application of a policy to revalue assets in accordance with IAS 16 Property, plant and equipment or IAS 38 Intangible assets is a change in an accounting policy to be dealt with as a revaluation in accordance with IAS 16 or IAS 38, rather than in accordance with this standard.

Paragraphs 19-31 do not apply to the change in accounting policy described in paragraph 17.

Applying changes in accounting policies

Subject to paragraph 23:

(a)

an entity shall account for a change in accounting policy resulting from the initial application of a standard or an interpretation in accordance with the specific transitional provisions, if any, in that standard or interpretation; and

(b)

when an entity changes an accounting policy upon initial application of a standard or an interpretation that does not include specific transitional provisions applying to that change, or changes an accounting policy voluntarily, it shall apply the change retrospectively.

For the purpose of this standard, early application of a standard or an interpretation is not a voluntary change in accounting policy.

In the absence of a standard or an interpretation that specifically applies to a transaction, other event or condition, management may, in accordance with paragraph 12, apply an accounting policy from the most recent pronouncements of other standard-setting bodies that use a similar conceptual framework to develop accounting standards. If, following an amendment of such a pronouncement, the entity chooses to change an accounting policy, that change is accounted for and disclosed as a voluntary change in accounting policy.

Retrospective application

Subject to paragraph 23, when a change in accounting policy is applied retrospectively in accordance with paragraph 19(a) or (b), the entity shall adjust the opening balance of each affected component of equity for the earliest prior period presented and the other comparative amounts disclosed for each prior period presented as if the new accounting policy had always been applied.

Limitations on retrospective application

When retrospective application is required by paragraph 19(a) or (b), a change in accounting policy shall be applied retrospectively except to the extent that it is impracticable to determine either the period-specific effects or the cumulative effect of the change.

When it is impracticable to determine the period-specific effects of changing an accounting policy on comparative information for one or more prior periods presented, the entity shall apply the new accounting policy to the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities as at the beginning of the earliest period for which retrospective application is practicable, which may be the current period, and shall make a corresponding adjustment to the opening balance of each affected component of equity for that period.

When it is impracticable to determine the cumulative effect, at the beginning of the current period, of applying a new accounting policy to all prior periods, the entity shall adjust the comparative information to apply the new accounting policy prospectively from the earliest date practicable.

When an entity applies a new accounting policy retrospectively, it applies the new accounting policy to comparative information for prior periods as far back as is practicable. Retrospective application to a prior period is not practicable unless it is practicable to determine the cumulative effect on the amounts in both the opening and closing balance sheets for that period. The amount of the resulting adjustment relating to periods before those presented in the financial statements is made to the opening balance of each affected component of equity of the earliest prior period presented. Usually the adjustment is made to retained earnings. However, the adjustment may be made to another component of equity (for example, to comply with a standard or an interpretation). Any other information about prior periods, such as historical summaries of financial data, is also adjusted as far back as is practicable.

When it is impracticable for an entity to apply a new accounting policy retrospectively, because it cannot determine the cumulative effect of applying the policy to all prior periods, the entity, in accordance with paragraph 25, applies the new policy prospectively from the start of the earliest period practicable. It therefore disregards the portion of the cumulative adjustment to assets, liabilities and equity arising before that date. Changing an accounting policy is permitted even if it is impracticable to apply the policy prospectively for any prior period. Paragraphs 50-53 provide guidance on when it is impracticable to apply a new accounting policy to one or more prior periods.

Disclosure

When initial application of a standard or an interpretation has an effect on the current period or any prior period, would have such an effect except that it is impracticable to determine the amount of the adjustment, or might have an effect on future periods, an entity shall disclose:

(a)

the title of the standard or interpretation;

(b)

when applicable, that the change in accounting policy is made in accordance with its transitional provisions;

(c)

the nature of the change in accounting policy;

(d)

when applicable, a description of the transitional provisions;

(e)

when applicable, the transitional provisions that might have an effect on future periods;

(f)

for the current period and each prior period presented, to the extent practicable, the amount of the adjustment:

(i)

for each financial statement line item affected; and

(ii)

if IAS 33 Earnings per share applies to the entity, for basic and diluted earnings per share;

(g)

the amount of the adjustment relating to periods before those presented, to the extent practicable; and

(h)

if retrospective application required by paragraph 19(a) or (b) is impracticable for a particular prior period, or for periods before those presented, the circumstances that led to the existence of that condition and a description of how and from when the change in accounting policy has been applied.

Financial statements of subsequent periods need not repeat these disclosures.

When a voluntary change in accounting policy has an effect on the current period or any prior period, would have an effect on that period except that it is impracticable to determine the amount of the adjustment, or might have an effect on future periods, an entity shall disclose:

(a)

the nature of the change in accounting policy;

(b)

the reasons why applying the new accounting policy provides reliable and more relevant information;

(c)

for the current period and each prior period presented, to the extent practicable, the amount of the adjustment:

(i)

for each financial statement line item affected; and

(ii)

if IAS 33 applies to the entity, for basic and diluted earnings per share;

(d)

the amount of the adjustment relating to periods before those presented, to the extent practicable; and

(e)

if retrospective application is impracticable for a particular prior period, or for periods before those presented, the circumstances that led to the existence of that condition and a description of how and from when the change in accounting policy has been applied.

Financial statements of subsequent periods need not repeat these disclosures.

When an entity has not applied a new standard or interpretation that has been issued but is not yet effective, the entity shall disclose:

(a)

this fact; and

(b)

known or reasonably estimable information relevant to assessing the possible impact that application of the new standard or interpretation will have on the entity's financial statements in the period of initial application.

In complying with paragraph 30, an entity considers disclosing:

(a)

the title of the new standard or interpretation;

(b)

the nature of the impending change or changes in accounting policy;

(c)

the date by which application of the standard or interpretation is required;

(d)

the date as at which it plans to apply the standard or interpretation initially; and

(e)

either:

(i)

a discussion of the impact that initial application of the standard or interpretation is expected to have on the entity's financial statements; or

(ii)

if that impact is not known or reasonably estimable, a statement to that effect.

CHANGES IN ACCOUNTING ESTIMATES

As a result of the uncertainties inherent in business activities, many items in financial statements cannot be measured with precision but can only be estimated. Estimation involves judgements based on the latest available, reliable information. For example, estimates may be required of:

(a)

bad debts;

(b)

inventory obsolescence;

(c)

the fair value of financial assets or financial liabilities;

(d)

the useful lives of, or expected pattern of consumption of the future economic benefits embodied in, depreciable assets; and

(e)

warranty obligations.

The use of reasonable estimates is an essential part of the preparation of financial statements and does not undermine their reliability.

An estimate may need revision if changes occur in the circumstances on which the estimate was based or as a result of new information or more experience. By its nature, the revision of an estimate does not relate to prior periods and is not the correction of an error.

A change in the measurement basis applied is a change in an accounting policy, and is not a change in an accounting estimate. When it is difficult to distinguish a change in an accounting policy from a change in an accounting estimate, the change is treated as a change in an accounting estimate.

The effect of a change in an accounting estimate, other than a change to which paragraph 37 applies, shall be recognised prospectively by including it in profit or loss in:

(a)

the period of the change, if the change affects that period only; or

(b)

the period of the change and future periods, if the change affects both.

To the extent that a change in an accounting estimate gives rise to changes in assets and liabilities, or relates to an item of equity, it shall be recognised by adjusting the carrying amount of the related asset, liability or equity item in the period of the change.

Prospective recognition of the effect of a change in an accounting estimate means that the change is applied to transactions, other events and conditions from the date of the change in estimate. A change in an accounting estimate may affect only the current period's profit or loss, or the profit or loss of both the current period and future periods. For example, a change in the estimate of the amount of bad debts affects only the current period's profit or loss and therefore is recognised in the current period. However, a change in the estimated useful life of, or the expected pattern of consumption of the future economic benefits embodied in, a depreciable asset affects depreciation expense for the current period and for each future period during the asset's remaining useful life. In both cases, the effect of the change relating to the current period is recognised as income or expense in the current period. The effect, if any, on future periods is recognised as income or expense in those future periods.

Disclosure

An entity shall disclose the nature and amount of a change in an accounting estimate that has an effect in the current period or is expected to have an effect in future periods, except for the disclosure of the effect on future periods when it is impracticable to estimate that effect.

If the amount of the effect in future periods is not disclosed because estimating it is impracticable, an entity shall disclose that fact.

ERRORS

Errors can arise in respect of the recognition, measurement, presentation or disclosure of elements of financial statements. Financial statements do not comply with IFRSs if they contain either material errors or immaterial errors made intentionally to achieve a particular presentation of an entity's financial position, financial performance or cash flows. Potential current period errors discovered in that period are corrected before the financial statements are authorised for issue. However, material errors are sometimes not discovered until a subsequent period, and these prior period errors are corrected in the comparative information presented in the financial statements for that subsequent period (see paragraphs 42-47).

Subject to paragraph 43, an entity shall correct material prior period errors retrospectively in the first set of financial statements authorised for issue after their discovery by:

(a)

restating the comparative amounts for the prior period(s) presented in which the error occurred; or

(b)

if the error occurred before the earliest prior period presented, restating the opening balances of assets, liabilities and equity for the earliest prior period presented.

Limitations on retrospective restatement

A prior period error shall be corrected by retrospective restatement except to the extent that it is impracticable to determine either the period-specific effects or the cumulative effect of the error.

When it is impracticable to determine the period-specific effects of an error on comparative information for one or more prior periods presented, the entity shall restate the opening balances of assets, liabilities and equity for the earliest period for which retrospective restatement is practicable (which may be the current period).

When it is impracticable to determine the cumulative effect, at the beginning of the current period, of an error on all prior periods, the entity shall restate the comparative information to correct the error prospectively from the earliest date practicable.

The correction of a prior period error is excluded from profit or loss for the period in which the error is discovered. Any information presented about prior periods, including any historical summaries of financial data, is restated as far back as is practicable.

When it is impracticable to determine the amount of an error (e.g. a mistake in applying an accounting policy) for all prior periods, the entity, in accordance with paragraph 45, restates the comparative information prospectively from the earliest date practicable. It therefore disregards the portion of the cumulative restatement of assets, liabilities and equity arising before that date. Paragraphs 50-53 provide guidance on when it is impracticable to correct an error for one or more prior periods.

Corrections of errors are distinguished from changes in accounting estimates. Accounting estimates by their nature are approximations that may need revision as additional information becomes known. For example, the gain or loss recognised on the outcome of a contingency is not the correction of an error.

Disclosure of prior period errors

In applying paragraph 42, an entity shall disclose the following:

(a)

the nature of the prior period error;

(b)

for each prior period presented, to the extent practicable, the amount of the correction:

(i)

for each financial statement line item affected; and

(ii)

if IAS 33 applies to the entity, for basic and diluted earnings per share;

(c)

the amount of the correction at the beginning of the earliest prior period presented; and

(d)

if retrospective restatement is impracticable for a particular prior period, the circumstances that led to the existence of that condition and a description of how and from when the error has been corrected.

Financial statements of subsequent periods need not repeat these disclosures.

IMPRACTICABILITY IN RESPECT OF RETROSPECTIVE APPLICATION AND RETROSPECTIVE RESTATEMENT

In some circumstances, it is impracticable to adjust comparative information for one or more prior periods to achieve comparability with the current period. For example, data may not have been collected in the prior period(s) in a way that allows either retrospective application of a new accounting policy (including, for the purpose of paragraphs 51-53, its prospective application to prior periods) or retrospective restatement to correct a prior period error, and it may be impracticable to recreate the information.

It is frequently necessary to make estimates in applying an accounting policy to elements of financial statements recognised or disclosed in respect of transactions, other events or conditions. Estimation is inherently subjective, and estimates may be developed after the balance sheet date. Developing estimates is potentially more difficult when retrospectively applying an accounting policy or making a retrospective restatement to correct a prior period error, because of the longer period of time that might have passed since the affected transaction, other event or condition occurred. However, the objective of estimates related to prior periods remains the same as for estimates made in the current period, namely, for the estimate to reflect the circumstances that existed when the transaction, other event or condition occurred.

Therefore, retrospectively applying a new accounting policy or correcting a prior period error requires distinguishing information that:

(a)

provides evidence of circumstances that existed on the date(s) as at which the transaction, other event or condition occurred; and

(b)

would have been available when the financial statements for that prior period were authorised for issue;

from other information. For some types of estimates (e.g. an estimate of fair value not based on an observable price or observable inputs), it is impracticable to distinguish these types of information. When retrospective application or retrospective restatement would require making a significant estimate for which it is impossible to distinguish these two types of information, it is impracticable to apply the new accounting policy or correct the prior period error retrospectively.

Hindsight should not be used when applying a new accounting policy to, or correcting amounts for, a prior period, either in making assumptions about what management's intentions would have been in a prior period or estimating the amounts recognised, measured or disclosed in a prior period. For example, when an entity corrects a prior period error in measuring financial assets previously classified as held-to-maturity investments in accordance with IAS 39 Financial instruments: recognition and measurement , it does not change their basis of measurement for that period if management decided later not to hold them to maturity. In addition, when an entity corrects a prior period error in calculating its liability for employees' accumulated sick leave in accordance with IAS 19 Employee benefits , it disregards information about an unusually severe influenza season during the next period that became available after the financial statements for the prior period were authorised for issue. The fact that significant estimates are frequently required when amending comparative information presented for prior periods does not prevent reliable adjustment or correction of the comparative information.

EFFECTIVE DATE

WITHDRAWAL OF OTHER PRONOUNCEMENTS

This standard supersedes IAS 8 Net profit or loss for the period, fundamental errors and changes in accounting policies , revised in 1993.

This standard supersedes the following interpretations:

(a)

SIC-2 Consistency — capitalisation of borrowing costs ; and

(b)

SIC-18 Consistency — alternative methods .

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 10

Events after the balance sheet date

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this standard is to prescribe:

(a)

when an entity should adjust its financial statements for events after the balance sheet date; and

(b)

the disclosures that an entity should give about the date when the financial statements were authorised for issue and about events after the balance sheet date.

The standard also requires that an entity should not prepare its financial statements on a going concern basis if events after the balance sheet date indicate that the going concern assumption is not appropriate.

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied in the accounting for, and disclosure of, events after the balance sheet date.

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

Events after the balance sheet date are those events, favourable and unfavourable, that occur between the balance sheet date and the date when the financial statements are authorised for issue. Two types of events can be identified:

(a)

those that provide evidence of conditions that existed at the balance sheet date ( adjusting events after the balance sheet date ); and

(b)

those that are indicative of conditions that arose after the balance sheet date ( non-adjusting events after the balance sheet date ).

The process involved in authorising the financial statements for issue will vary depending upon the management structure, statutory requirements and procedures followed in preparing and finalising the financial statements.

In some cases, an entity is required to submit its financial statements to its shareholders for approval after the financial statements have been issued. In such cases, the financial statements are authorised for issue on the date of issue, not the date when shareholders approve the financial statements.

Example

The management of an entity completes draft financial statements for the year to 31 December 20X1 on 28 February 20X2. On 18 March 20X2, the board of directors reviews the financial statements and authorises them for issue. The entity announces its profit and selected other financial information on 19 March 20X2. The financial statements are made available to shareholders and others on 1 April 20X2. The shareholders approve the financial statements at their annual meeting on 15 May 20X2 and the approved financial statements are then filed with a regulatory body on 17 May 20X2.

The financial statements are authorised for issue on 18 March 20X2 (date of board authorisation for issue).

In some cases, the management of an entity is required to issue its financial statements to a supervisory board (made up solely of non-executives) for approval. In such cases, the financial statements are authorised for issue when the management authorises them for issue to the supervisory board.

Example

On 18 March 20X2, the management of an entity authorises financial statements for issue to its supervisory board. The supervisory board is made up solely of non-executives and may include representatives of employees and other outside interests. The supervisory board approves the financial statements on 26 March 20X2. The financial statements are made available to shareholders and others on 1 April 20X2. The shareholders approve the financial statements at their annual meeting on 15 May 20X2 and the financial statements are then filed with a regulatory body on 17 May 20X2.

The financial statements are authorised for issue on 18 March 20X2 (date of management authorisation for issue to the supervisory board).

Events after the balance sheet date include all events up to the date when the financial statements are authorised for issue, even if those events occur after the public announcement of profit or of other selected financial information.

RECOGNITION AND MEASUREMENT

Adjusting events after the balance sheet date

An entity shall adjust the amounts recognised in its financial statements to reflect adjusting events after the balance sheet date.

The following are examples of adjusting events after the balance sheet date that require an entity to adjust the amounts recognised in its financial statements, or to recognise items that were not previously recognised:

(a)

the settlement after the balance sheet date of a court case that confirms that the entity had a present obligation at the balance sheet date. The entity adjusts any previously recognised provision related to this court case in accordance with IAS 37 Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets or recognises a new provision. The entity does not merely disclose a contingent liability because the settlement provides additional evidence that would be considered in accordance with paragraph 16 of IAS 37;

(b)

the receipt of information after the balance sheet date indicating that an asset was impaired at the balance sheet date, or that the amount of a previously recognised impairment loss for that asset needs to be adjusted. For example:

(i)

the bankruptcy of a customer that occurs after the balance sheet date usually confirms that a loss existed at the balance sheet date on a trade receivable and that the entity needs to adjust the carrying amount of the trade receivable; and

(ii)

the sale of inventories after the balance sheet date may give evidence about their net realisable value at the balance sheet date;

(c)

the determination after the balance sheet date of the cost of assets purchased, or the proceeds from assets sold, before the balance sheet date;

(d)

the determination after the balance sheet date of the amount of profit-sharing or bonus payments, if the entity had a present legal or constructive obligation at the balance sheet date to make such payments as a result of events before that date (see IAS 19 Employee benefits );

(e)

the discovery of fraud or errors that show that the financial statements are incorrect.

Non-adjusting events after the balance sheet date

An entity shall not adjust the amounts recognised in its financial statements to reflect non-adjusting events after the balance sheet date.

An example of a non-adjusting event after the balance sheet date is a decline in market value of investments between the balance sheet date and the date when the financial statements are authorised for issue. The decline in market value does not normally relate to the condition of the investments at the balance sheet date, but reflects circumstances that have arisen subsequently. Therefore, an entity does not adjust the amounts recognised in its financial statements for the investments. Similarly, the entity does not update the amounts disclosed for the investments as at the balance sheet date, although it may need to give additional disclosure under paragraph 21.

Dividends

If an entity declares dividends to holders of equity instruments (as defined in IAS 32 Financial instruments: presentation ) after the balance sheet date, the entity shall not recognise those dividends as a liability at the balance sheet date.

If dividends are declared (i.e. the dividends are appropriately authorised and no longer at the discretion of the entity) after the balance sheet date but before the financial statements are authorised for issue, the dividends are not recognised as a liability at the balance sheet date because they do not meet the criteria of a present obligation in IAS 37. Such dividends are disclosed in the notes in accordance with IAS 1 Presentation of financial statements .

GOING CONCERN

An entity shall not prepare its financial statements on a going concern basis if management determines after the balance sheet date either that it intends to liquidate the entity or to cease trading, or that it has no realistic alternative but to do so.

Deterioration in operating results and financial position after the balance sheet date may indicate a need to consider whether the going concern assumption is still appropriate. If the going concern assumption is no longer appropriate, the effect is so pervasive that this standard requires a fundamental change in the basis of accounting, rather than an adjustment to the amounts recognised within the original basis of accounting.

IAS 1 specifies required disclosures if:

(a)

the financial statements are not prepared on a going concern basis; or

(b)

management is aware of material uncertainties related to events or conditions that may cast significant doubt upon the entity's ability to continue as a going concern. The events or conditions requiring disclosure may arise after the balance sheet date.

DISCLOSURE

Date of authorisation for issue

An entity shall disclose the date when the financial statements were authorised for issue and who gave that authorisation. If the entity's owners or others have the power to amend the financial statements after issue, the entity shall disclose that fact.

It is important for users to know when the financial statements were authorised for issue, because the financial statements do not reflect events after this date.

Updating disclosure about conditions at the balance sheet date

If an entity receives information after the balance sheet date about conditions that existed at the balance sheet date, it shall update disclosures that relate to those conditions, in the light of the new information.

In some cases, an entity needs to update the disclosures in its financial statements to reflect information received after the balance sheet date, even when the information does not affect the amounts that it recognises in its financial statements. One example of the need to update disclosures is when evidence becomes available after the balance sheet date about a contingent liability that existed at the balance sheet date. In addition to considering whether it should recognise or change a provision under IAS 37, an entity updates its disclosures about the contingent liability in the light of that evidence.

Non-adjusting events after the balance sheet date

If non-adjusting events after the balance sheet date are material, non-disclosure could influence the economic decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial statements. Accordingly, an entity shall disclose the following for each material category of non-adjusting event after the balance sheet date:

(a)

the nature of the event; and

(b)

an estimate of its financial effect, or a statement that such an estimate cannot be made.

The following are examples of non-adjusting events after the balance sheet date that would generally result in disclosure:

(a)

a major business combination after the balance sheet date (IFRS 3 Business combinations requires specific disclosures in such cases) or disposing of a major subsidiary;

(b)

announcing a plan to discontinue an operation;

(c)

major purchases of assets, classification of assets as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5 Non-current assets held for sale and discontinued operations , other disposals of assets, or expropriation of major assets by government;

(d)

the destruction of a major production plant by a fire after the balance sheet date;

(e)

announcing, or commencing the implementation of, a major restructuring (see IAS 37);

(f)

major ordinary share transactions and potential ordinary share transactions after the balance sheet date (IAS 33 Earnings per share requires an entity to disclose a description of such transactions, other than when such transactions involve capitalisation or bonus issues, share splits or reverse share splits all of which are required to be adjusted under IAS 33);

(g)

abnormally large changes after the balance sheet date in asset prices or foreign exchange rates;

(h)

changes in tax rates or tax laws enacted or announced after the balance sheet date that have a significant effect on current and deferred tax assets and liabilities (see IAS 12 Income taxes );

(i)

entering into significant commitments or contingent liabilities, for example, by issuing significant guarantees; and

(j)

commencing major litigation arising solely out of events that occurred after the balance sheet date.

EFFECTIVE DATE

WITHDRAWAL OF IAS 10 (REVISED 1999)

This standard supersedes IAS 10 Events after the balance sheet date (revised in 1999).

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 11

Construction contracts

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this standard is to prescribe the accounting treatment of revenue and costs associated with construction contracts. Because of the nature of the activity undertaken in construction contracts, the date at which the contract activity is entered into and the date when the activity is completed usually fall into different accounting periods. Therefore, the primary issue in accounting for construction contracts is the allocation of contract revenue and contract costs to the accounting periods in which construction work is performed. This standard uses the recognition criteria established in the Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements to determine when contract revenue and contract costs should be recognised as revenue and expenses in the income statement. It also provides practical guidance on the application of these criteria.

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied in accounting for construction contracts in the financial statements of contractors.

This standard supersedes IAS 11 Accounting for construction contracts approved in 1978.

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

A construction contract is a contract specifically negotiated for the construction of an asset or a combination of assets that are closely interrelated or interdependent in terms of their design, technology and function or their ultimate purpose or use.

A fixed price contract is a construction contract in which the contractor agrees to a fixed contract price, or a fixed rate per unit of output, which in some cases is subject to cost escalation clauses.

A cost plus contract is a construction contract in which the contractor is reimbursed for allowable or otherwise defined costs, plus a percentage of these costs or a fixed fee.

A construction contract may be negotiated for the construction of a single asset such as a bridge, building, dam, pipeline, road, ship or tunnel. A construction contract may also deal with the construction of a number of assets which are closely interrelated or interdependent in terms of their design, technology and function or their ultimate purpose or use; examples of such contracts include those for the construction of refineries and other complex pieces of plant or equipment.

For the purposes of this standard, construction contracts include:

(a)

contracts for the rendering of services which are directly related to the construction of the asset, for example, those for the services of project managers and architects; and

(b)

contracts for the destruction or restoration of assets, and the restoration of the environment following the demolition of assets.

Construction contracts are formulated in a number of ways which, for the purposes of this standard, are classified as fixed price contracts and cost plus contracts. Some construction contracts may contain characteristics of both a fixed price contract and a cost plus contract, for example in the case of a cost plus contract with an agreed maximum price. In such circumstances, a contractor needs to consider all the conditions in paragraphs 23 and 24 in order to determine when to recognise contract revenue and expenses.

COMBINING AND SEGMENTING CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTS

The requirements of this standard are usually applied separately to each construction contract. However, in certain circumstances, it is necessary to apply the standard to the separately identifiable components of a single contract or to a group of contracts together in order to reflect the substance of a contract or a group of contracts.

When a contract covers a number of assets, the construction of each asset shall be treated as a separate construction contract when:

(a)

separate proposals have been submitted for each asset;

(b)

each asset has been subject to separate negotiation and the contractor and customer have been able to accept or reject that part of the contract relating to each asset; and

(c)

the costs and revenues of each asset can be identified.

A group of contracts, whether with a single customer or with several customers, shall be treated as a single construction contract when:

(a)

the group of contracts is negotiated as a single package;

(b)

the contracts are so closely interrelated that they are, in effect, part of a single project with an overall profit margin; and

(c)

the contracts are performed concurrently or in a continuous sequence.

A contract may provide for the construction of an additional asset at the option of the customer or may be amended to include the construction of an additional asset. The construction of the additional asset shall be treated as a separate construction contract when:

(a)

the asset differs significantly in design, technology or function from the asset or assets covered by the original contract; or

(b)

the price of the asset is negotiated without regard to the original contract price.

CONTRACT REVENUE

Contract revenue shall comprise:

(a)

the initial amount of revenue agreed in the contract; and

(b)

variations in contract work, claims and incentive payments:

(i)

to the extent that it is probable that they will result in revenue; and

(ii)

they are capable of being reliably measured.

Contract revenue is measured at the fair value of the consideration received or receivable. The measurement of contract revenue is affected by a variety of uncertainties that depend on the outcome of future events. The estimates often need to be revised as events occur and uncertainties are resolved. Therefore, the amount of contract revenue may increase or decrease from one period to the next. For example:

(a)

a contractor and a customer may agree variations or claims that increase or decrease contract revenue in a period subsequent to that in which the contract was initially agreed;

(b)

the amount of revenue agreed in a fixed price contract may increase as a result of cost escalation clauses;

(c)

the amount of contract revenue may decrease as a result of penalties arising from delays caused by the contractor in the completion of the contract; or

(d)

when a fixed price contract involves a fixed price per unit of output, contract revenue increases as the number of units is increased.

A variation is an instruction by the customer for a change in the scope of the work to be performed under the contract. A variation may lead to an increase or a decrease in contract revenue. Examples of variations are changes in the specifications or design of the asset and changes in the duration of the contract. A variation is included in contract revenue when:

(a)

it is probable that the customer will approve the variation and the amount of revenue arising from the variation; and

(b)

the amount of revenue can be reliably measured.

A claim is an amount that the contractor seeks to collect from the customer or another party as reimbursement for costs not included in the contract price. A claim may arise from, for example, customer caused delays, errors in specifications or design, and disputed variations in contract work. The measurement of the amounts of revenue arising from claims is subject to a high level of uncertainty and often depends on the outcome of negotiations. Therefore, claims are included in contract revenue only when:

(a)

negotiations have reached an advanced stage such that it is probable that the customer will accept the claim; and

(b)

the amount that it is probable will be accepted by the customer can be measured reliably.

Incentive payments are additional amounts paid to the contractor if specified performance standards are met or exceeded. For example, a contract may allow for an incentive payment to the contractor for early completion of the contract. Incentive payments are included in contract revenue when:

(a)

the contract is sufficiently advanced that it is probable that the specified performance standards will be met or exceeded; and

(b)

the amount of the incentive payment can be measured reliably.

CONTRACT COSTS

Contract costs shall comprise:

(a)

costs that relate directly to the specific contract;

(b)

costs that are attributable to contract activity in general and can be allocated to the contract; and

(c)

such other costs as are specifically chargeable to the customer under the terms of the contract.

Costs that relate directly to a specific contract include:

(a)

site labour costs, including site supervision;

(b)

costs of materials used in construction;

(c)

depreciation of plant and equipment used on the contract;

(d)

costs of moving plant, equipment and materials to and from the contract site;

(e)

costs of hiring plant and equipment;

(f)

costs of design and technical assistance that is directly related to the contract;

(g)

the estimated costs of rectification and guarantee work, including expected warranty costs; and

(h)

claims from third parties.

These costs may be reduced by any incidental income that is not included in contract revenue, for example income from the sale of surplus materials and the disposal of plant and equipment at the end of the contract.

Costs that may be attributable to contract activity in general and can be allocated to specific contracts include:

(a)

insurance;

(b)

costs of design and technical assistance that are not directly related to a specific contract; and

(c)

construction overheads.

Such costs are allocated using methods that are systematic and rational and are applied consistently to all costs having similar characteristics. The allocation is based on the normal level of construction activity. Construction overheads include costs such as the preparation and processing of construction personnel payroll. Costs that may be attributable to contract activity in general and can be allocated to specific contracts also include borrowing costs when the contractor adopts the allowed alternative treatment in IAS 23 Borrowing costs .

Costs that are specifically chargeable to the customer under the terms of the contract may include some general administration costs and development costs for which reimbursement is specified in the terms of the contract.

Costs that cannot be attributed to contract activity or cannot be allocated to a contract are excluded from the costs of a construction contract. Such costs include:

(a)

general administration costs for which reimbursement is not specified in the contract;

(b)

selling costs;

(c)

research and development costs for which reimbursement is not specified in the contract; and

(d)

depreciation of idle plant and equipment that is not used on a particular contract.

Contract costs include the costs attributable to a contract for the period from the date of securing the contract to the final completion of the contract. However, costs that relate directly to a contract and are incurred in securing the contract are also included as part of the contract costs if they can be separately identified and measured reliably and it is probable that the contract will be obtained. When costs incurred in securing a contract are recognised as an expense in the period in which they are incurred, they are not included in contract costs when the contract is obtained in a subsequent period.

RECOGNITION OF CONTRACT REVENUE AND EXPENSES

When the outcome of a construction contract can be estimated reliably, contract revenue and contract costs associated with the construction contract shall be recognised as revenue and expenses respectively by reference to the stage of completion of the contract activity at the balance sheet date. An expected loss on the construction contract shall be recognised as an expense immediately in accordance with paragraph 36.

In the case of a fixed price contract, the outcome of a construction contract can be estimated reliably when all the following conditions are satisfied:

(a)

total contract revenue can be measured reliably;

(b)

it is probable that the economic benefits associated with the contract will flow to the entity;

(c)

both the contract costs to complete the contract and the stage of contract completion at the balance sheet date can be measured reliably; and

(d)

the contract costs attributable to the contract can be clearly identified and measured reliably so that actual contract costs incurred can be compared with prior estimates.

In the case of a cost plus contract, the outcome of a construction contract can be estimated reliably when all the following conditions are satisfied:

(a)

it is probable that the economic benefits associated with the contract will flow to the entity; and

(b)

the contract costs attributable to the contract, whether or not specifically reimbursable, can be clearly identified and measured reliably.

The recognition of revenue and expenses by reference to the stage of completion of a contract is often referred to as the percentage of completion method. Under this method, contract revenue is matched with the contract costs incurred in reaching the stage of completion, resulting in the reporting of revenue, expenses and profit which can be attributed to the proportion of work completed. This method provides useful information on the extent of contract activity and performance during a period.

Under the percentage of completion method, contract revenue is recognised as revenue in the income statement in the accounting periods in which the work is performed. Contract costs are usually recognised as an expense in the income statement in the accounting periods in which the work to which they relate is performed. However, any expected excess of total contract costs over total contract revenue for the contract is recognised as an expense immediately in accordance with paragraph 36.

A contractor may have incurred contract costs that relate to future activity on the contract. Such contract costs are recognised as an asset provided it is probable that they will be recovered. Such costs represent an amount due from the customer and are often classified as contract work in progress.

The outcome of a construction contract can only be estimated reliably when it is probable that the economic benefits associated with the contract will flow to the entity. However, when an uncertainty arises about the collectability of an amount already included in contract revenue, and already recognised in the income statement, the uncollectable amount or the amount in respect of which recovery has ceased to be probable is recognised as an expense rather than as an adjustment of the amount of contract revenue.

An entity is generally able to make reliable estimates after it has agreed to a contract which establishes:

(a)

each party's enforceable rights regarding the asset to be constructed;

(b)

the consideration to be exchanged; and

(c)

the manner and terms of settlement.

It is also usually necessary for the entity to have an effective internal financial budgeting and reporting system. The entity reviews and, when necessary, revises the estimates of contract revenue and contract costs as the contract progresses. The need for such revisions does not necessarily indicate that the outcome of the contract cannot be estimated reliably.

The stage of completion of a contract may be determined in a variety of ways. The entity uses the method that measures reliably the work performed. Depending on the nature of the contract, the methods may include:

(a)

the proportion that contract costs incurred for work performed to date bear to the estimated total contract costs;

(b)

surveys of work performed; or

(c)

completion of a physical proportion of the contract work.

Progress payments and advances received from customers often do not reflect the work performed.

When the stage of completion is determined by reference to the contract costs incurred to date, only those contract costs that reflect work performed are included in costs incurred to date. Examples of contract costs which are excluded are:

(a)

contract costs that relate to future activity on the contract, such as costs of materials that have been delivered to a contract site or set aside for use in a contract but not yet installed, used or applied during contract performance, unless the materials have been made specially for the contract; and

(b)

payments made to subcontractors in advance of work performed under the subcontract.

When the outcome of a construction contract cannot be estimated reliably:

(a)

revenue shall be recognised only to the extent of contract costs incurred that it is probable will be recoverable; and

(b)

contract costs shall be recognised as an expense in the period in which they are incurred.

An expected loss on the construction contract shall be recognised as an expense immediately in accordance with paragraph 36.

During the early stages of a contract it is often the case that the outcome of the contract cannot be estimated reliably. Nevertheless, it may be probable that the entity will recover the contract costs incurred. Therefore, contract revenue is recognised only to the extent of costs incurred that are expected to be recoverable. As the outcome of the contract cannot be estimated reliably, no profit is recognised. However, even though the outcome of the contract cannot be estimated reliably, it may be probable that total contract costs will exceed total contract revenues. In such cases, any expected excess of total contract costs over total contract revenue for the contract is recognised as an expense immediately in accordance with paragraph 36.

Contract costs that are not probable of being recovered are recognised as an expense immediately. Examples of circumstances in which the recoverability of contract costs incurred may not be probable and in which contract costs may need to be recognised as an expense immediately include contracts:

(a)

that are not fully enforceable, i.e. their validity is seriously in question;

(b)

the completion of which is subject to the outcome of pending litigation or legislation;

(c)

relating to properties that are likely to be condemned or expropriated;

(d)

where the customer is unable to meet its obligations; or

(e)

where the contractor is unable to complete the contract or otherwise meet its obligations under the contract.

When the uncertainties that prevented the outcome of the contract being estimated reliably no longer exist, revenue and expenses associated with the construction contract shall be recognised in accordance with paragraph 22 rather than in accordance with paragraph 32.

RECOGNITION OF EXPECTED LOSSES

When it is probable that total contract costs will exceed total contract revenue, the expected loss shall be recognised as an expense immediately.

The amount of such a loss is determined irrespective of:

(a)

whether work has commenced on the contract;

(b)

the stage of completion of contract activity; or

(c)

the amount of profits expected to arise on other contracts which are not treated as a single construction contract in accordance with paragraph 9.

CHANGES IN ESTIMATES

The percentage of completion method is applied on a cumulative basis in each accounting period to the current estimates of contract revenue and contract costs. Therefore, the effect of a change in the estimate of contract revenue or contract costs, or the effect of a change in the estimate of the outcome of a contract, is accounted for as a change in accounting estimate (see IAS 8 Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and errors ). The changed estimates are used in the determination of the amount of revenue and expenses recognised in the income statement in the period in which the change is made and in subsequent periods.

DISCLOSURE

An entity shall disclose:

(a)

the amount of contract revenue recognised as revenue in the period;

(b)

the methods used to determine the contract revenue recognised in the period; and

(c)

the methods used to determine the stage of completion of contracts in progress.

An entity shall disclose each of the following for contracts in progress at the balance sheet date:

(a)

the aggregate amount of costs incurred and recognised profits (less recognised losses) to date;

(b)

the amount of advances received; and

(c)

the amount of retentions.

Retentions are amounts of progress billings that are not paid until the satisfaction of conditions specified in the contract for the payment of such amounts or until defects have been rectified. Progress billings are amounts billed for work performed on a contract whether or not they have been paid by the customer. Advances are amounts received by the contractor before the related work is performed.

An entity shall present:

(a)

the gross amount due from customers for contract work as an asset; and

(b)

the gross amount due to customers for contract work as a liability.

The gross amount due from customers for contract work is the net amount of:

(a)

costs incurred plus recognised profits; less

(b)

the sum of recognised losses and progress billings;

for all contracts in progress for which costs incurred plus recognised profits (less recognised losses) exceeds progress billings.

The gross amount due to customers for contract work is the net amount of:

(a)

costs incurred plus recognised profits; less

(b)

the sum of recognised losses and progress billings;

for all contracts in progress for which progress billings exceed costs incurred plus recognised profits (less recognised losses).

An entity discloses any contingent liabilities and contingent assets in accordance with IAS 37 Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets . Contingent liabilities and contingent assets may arise from such items as warranty costs, claims, penalties or possible losses.

EFFECTIVE DATE

This standard becomes operative for financial statements covering periods beginning on or after 1 January 1995.

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 12

Income taxes

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this standard is to prescribe the accounting treatment for income taxes. The principal issue in accounting for income taxes is how to account for the current and future tax consequences of:

(a)

the future recovery (settlement) of the carrying amount of assets (liabilities) that are recognised in an entity's balance sheet; and

(b)

transactions and other events of the current period that are recognised in an entity's financial statements.

It is inherent in the recognition of an asset or liability that the reporting entity expects to recover or settle the carrying amount of that asset or liability. If it is probable that recovery or settlement of that carrying amount will make future tax payments larger (smaller) than they would be if such recovery or settlement were to have no tax consequences, this standard requires an entity to recognise a deferred tax liability (deferred tax asset), with certain limited exceptions.

This standard requires an entity to account for the tax consequences of transactions and other events in the same way that it accounts for the transactions and other events themselves. Thus, for transactions and other events recognised in profit or loss, any related tax effects are also recognised in profit or loss. For transactions and other events recognised directly in equity, any related tax effects are also recognised directly in equity. Similarly, the recognition of deferred tax assets and liabilities in a business combination affects the amount of goodwill arising in that business combination or the amount of any excess of the acquirer's interest in the net fair value of the acquiree's identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities over the cost of the combination.

This standard also deals with the recognition of deferred tax assets arising from unused tax losses or unused tax credits, the presentation of income taxes in the financial statements and the disclosure of information relating to income taxes.

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied in accounting for income taxes.

For the purposes of this standard, income taxes include all domestic and foreign taxes which are based on taxable profits. Income taxes also include taxes, such as withholding taxes, which are payable by a subsidiary, associate or joint venture on distributions to the reporting entity.

[Deleted]

This standard does not deal with the methods of accounting for government grants (see IAS 20 Accounting for government grants and disclosure of government assistance ) or investment tax credits. However, this standard does deal with the accounting for temporary differences that may arise from such grants or investment tax credits.

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

Accounting profit is profit or loss for a period before deducting tax expense.

Taxable profit (tax loss) is the profit (loss) for a period, determined in accordance with the rules established by the taxation authorities, upon which income taxes are payable (recoverable).

Tax expense (tax income) is the aggregate amount included in the determination of profit or loss for the period in respect of current tax and deferred tax.

Current tax is the amount of income taxes payable (recoverable) in respect of the taxable profit (tax loss) for a period.

Deferred tax liabilities are the amounts of income taxes payable in future periods in respect of taxable temporary differences.

Deferred tax assets are the amounts of income taxes recoverable in future periods in respect of:

(a)

deductible temporary differences;

(b)

the carryforward of unused tax losses; and

(c)

the carryforward of unused tax credits.

Temporary differences are differences between the carrying amount of an asset or liability in the balance sheet and its tax base. Temporary differences may be either:

(a)

taxable temporary differences , which are temporary differences that will result in taxable amounts in determining taxable profit (tax loss) of future periods when the carrying amount of the asset or liability is recovered or settled; or

(b)

deductible temporary differences , which are temporary differences that will result in amounts that are deductible in determining taxable profit (tax loss) of future periods when the carrying amount of the asset or liability is recovered or settled.

The tax base of an asset or liability is the amount attributed to that asset or liability for tax purposes.

Tax expense (tax income) comprises current tax expense (current tax income) and deferred tax expense (deferred tax income).

Tax base

The tax base of an asset is the amount that will be deductible for tax purposes against any taxable economic benefits that will flow to an entity when it recovers the carrying amount of the asset. If those economic benefits will not be taxable, the tax base of the asset is equal to its carrying amount.

Examples

A machine cost 100. For tax purposes, depreciation of 30 has already been deducted in the current and prior periods and the remaining cost will be deductible in future periods, either as depreciation or through a deduction on disposal. Revenue generated by using the machine is taxable, any gain on disposal of the machine will be taxable and any loss on disposal will be deductible for tax purposes. The tax base of the machine is 70 .

Interest receivable has a carrying amount of 100. The related interest revenue will be taxed on a cash basis. The tax base of the interest receivable is nil .

Trade receivables have a carrying amount of 100. The related revenue has already been included in taxable profit (tax loss). The tax base of the trade receivables is 100 .

Dividends receivable from a subsidiary have a carrying amount of 100. The dividends are not taxable. In substance, the entire carrying amount of the asset is deductible against the economic benefits. Consequently, the tax base of the dividends receivable is 100 ( 1 ) .

A loan receivable has a carrying amount of 100. The repayment of the loan will have no tax consequences. The tax base of the loan is 100 .

The tax base of a liability is its carrying amount, less any amount that will be deductible for tax purposes in respect of that liability in future periods. In the case of revenue which is received in advance, the tax base of the resulting liability is its carrying amount, less any amount of the revenue that will not be taxable in future periods.

Examples

Current liabilities include accrued expenses with a carrying amount of 100. The related expense will be deducted for tax purposes on a cash basis. The tax base of the accrued expenses is nil .

Current liabilities include interest revenue received in advance, with a carrying amount of 100. The related interest revenue was taxed on a cash basis. The tax base of the interest received in advance is nil .

Current liabilities include accrued expenses with a carrying amount of 100. The related expense has already been deducted for tax purposes. The tax base of the accrued expenses is 100 .

Current liabilities include accrued fines and penalties with a carrying amount of 100. Fines and penalties are not deductible for tax purposes. The tax base of the accrued fines and penalties is 100

( 2 ) .

A loan payable has a carrying amount of 100. The repayment of the loan will have no tax consequences. The tax base of the loan is 100 .

Some items have a tax base but are not recognised as assets and liabilities in the balance sheet. For example, research costs are recognised as an expense in determining accounting profit in the period in which they are incurred but may not be permitted as a deduction in determining taxable profit (tax loss) until a later period. The difference between the tax base of the research costs, being the amount the taxation authorities will permit as a deduction in future periods, and the carrying amount of nil is a deductible temporary difference that results in a deferred tax asset.

Where the tax base of an asset or liability is not immediately apparent, it is helpful to consider the fundamental principle upon which this standard is based: that an entity shall, with certain limited exceptions, recognise a deferred tax liability (asset) whenever recovery or settlement of the carrying amount of an asset or liability would make future tax payments larger (smaller) than they would be if such recovery or settlement were to have no tax consequences. Example C following paragraph 52 illustrates circumstances when it may be helpful to consider this fundamental principle, for example, when the tax base of an asset or liability depends on the expected manner of recovery or settlement.

In consolidated financial statements, temporary differences are determined by comparing the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities in the consolidated financial statements with the appropriate tax base. The tax base is determined by reference to a consolidated tax return in those jurisdictions in which such a return is filed. In other jurisdictions, the tax base is determined by reference to the tax returns of each entity in the group.

RECOGNITION OF CURRENT TAX LIABILITIES AND CURRENT TAX ASSETS

Current tax for current and prior periods shall, to the extent unpaid, be recognised as a liability. If the amount already paid in respect of current and prior periods exceeds the amount due for those periods, the excess shall be recognised as an asset.

The benefit relating to a tax loss that can be carried back to recover current tax of a previous period shall be recognised as an asset.

When a tax loss is used to recover current tax of a previous period, an entity recognises the benefit as an asset in the period in which the tax loss occurs because it is probable that the benefit will flow to the entity and the benefit can be reliably measured.

RECOGNITION OF DEFERRED TAX LIABILITIES AND DEFERRED TAX ASSETS

TAXABLE TEMPORARY DIFFERENCES

A deferred tax liability shall be recognised for all taxable temporary differences, except to the extent that the deferred tax liability arises from:

(a)

the initial recognition of goodwill; or

(b)

the initial recognition of an asset or liability in a transaction which:

(i)

is not a business combination; and

(ii)

at the time of the transaction, affects neither accounting profit nor taxable profit (tax loss).

However, for taxable temporary differences associated with investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates, and interests in joint ventures, a deferred tax liability shall be recognised in accordance with paragraph 39.

It is inherent in the recognition of an asset that its carrying amount will be recovered in the form of economic benefits that flow to the entity in future periods. When the carrying amount of the asset exceeds its tax base, the amount of taxable economic benefits will exceed the amount that will be allowed as a deduction for tax purposes. This difference is a taxable temporary difference and the obligation to pay the resulting income taxes in future periods is a deferred tax liability. As the entity recovers the carrying amount of the asset, the taxable temporary difference will reverse and the entity will have taxable profit. This makes it probable that economic benefits will flow from the entity in the form of tax payments. Therefore, this standard requires the recognition of all deferred tax liabilities, except in certain circumstances described in paragraphs 15 and 39.

Example

An asset which cost 150 has a carrying amount of 100. Cumulative depreciation for tax purposes is 90 and the tax rate is 25 %.

The tax base of the asset is 60 (cost of 150 less cumulative tax depreciation of 90). To recover the carrying amount of 100, the entity must earn taxable income of 100, but will only be able to deduct tax depreciation of 60. Consequently, the entity will pay income taxes of 10 (40 at 25 %) when it recovers the carrying amount of the asset. The difference between the carrying amount of 100 and the tax base of 60 is a taxable temporary difference of 40. Therefore, the entity recognises a deferred tax liability of 10 (40 at 25 %) representing the income taxes that it will pay when it recovers the carrying amount of the asset.

Some temporary differences arise when income or expense is included in accounting profit in one period but is included in taxable profit in a different period. Such temporary differences are often described as timing differences. The following are examples of temporary differences of this kind which are taxable temporary differences and which therefore result in deferred tax liabilities:

(a)

interest revenue is included in accounting profit on a time proportion basis but may, in some jurisdictions, be included in taxable profit when cash is collected. The tax base of any receivable recognised in the balance sheet with respect to such revenues is nil because the revenues do not affect taxable profit until cash is collected;

(b)

depreciation used in determining taxable profit (tax loss) may differ from that used in determining accounting profit. The temporary difference is the difference between the carrying amount of the asset and its tax base which is the original cost of the asset less all deductions in respect of that asset permitted by the taxation authorities in determining taxable profit of the current and prior periods. A taxable temporary difference arises, and results in a deferred tax liability, when tax depreciation is accelerated (if tax depreciation is less rapid than accounting depreciation, a deductible temporary difference arises, and results in a deferred tax asset); and

(c)

development costs may be capitalised and amortised over future periods in determining accounting profit but deducted in determining taxable profit in the period in which they are incurred. Such development costs have a tax base of nil as they have already been deducted from taxable profit. The temporary difference is the difference between the carrying amount of the development costs and their tax base of nil.

Temporary differences also arise when:

(a)

the cost of a business combination is allocated by recognising the identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed at their fair values, but no equivalent adjustment is made for tax purposes (see paragraph 19);

(b)

assets are revalued and no equivalent adjustment is made for tax purposes (see paragraph 20);

(c)

goodwill arises in a business combination (see paragraph 21);

(d)

the tax base of an asset or liability on initial recognition differs from its initial carrying amount, for example when an entity benefits from non-taxable government grants related to assets (see paragraphs 22 and 33); or

(e)

the carrying amount of investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates or interests in joint ventures becomes different from the tax base of the investment or interest (see paragraphs 38-45).

Business combinations

The cost of a business combination is allocated by recognising the identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed at their fair values at the acquisition date. Temporary differences arise when the tax bases of the identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed are not affected by the business combination or are affected differently. For example, when the carrying amount of an asset is increased to fair value but the tax base of the asset remains at cost to the previous owner, a taxable temporary difference arises which results in a deferred tax liability. The resulting deferred tax liability affects goodwill (see paragraph 66).

Assets carried at fair value

IFRSs permit or require certain assets to be carried at fair value or to be revalued (see, for example, IAS 16 Property, plant and equipment , IAS 38 Intangible assets , IAS 39 Financial instruments: recognition and measurement and IAS 40 Investment property ). In some jurisdictions, the revaluation or other restatement of an asset to fair value affects taxable profit (tax loss) for the current period. As a result, the tax base of the asset is adjusted and no temporary difference arises. In other jurisdictions, the revaluation or restatement of an asset does not affect taxable profit in the period of the revaluation or restatement and, consequently, the tax base of the asset is not adjusted. Nevertheless, the future recovery of the carrying amount will result in a taxable flow of economic benefits to the entity and the amount that will be deductible for tax purposes will differ from the amount of those economic benefits. The difference between the carrying amount of a revalued asset and its tax base is a temporary difference and gives rise to a deferred tax liability or asset. This is true even if:

(a)

the entity does not intend to dispose of the asset. In such cases, the revalued carrying amount of the asset will be recovered through use and this will generate taxable income which exceeds the depreciation that will be allowable for tax purposes in future periods; or

(b)

tax on capital gains is deferred if the proceeds of the disposal of the asset are invested in similar assets. In such cases, the tax will ultimately become payable on sale or use of the similar assets.

Goodwill

Goodwill arising in a business combination is measured as the excess of the cost of the combination over the acquirer's interest in the net fair value of the acquiree's identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities. Many taxation authorities do not allow reductions in the carrying amount of goodwill as a deductible expense in determining taxable profit. Moreover, in such jurisdictions, the cost of goodwill is often not deductible when a subsidiary disposes of its underlying business. In such jurisdictions, goodwill has a tax base of nil. Any difference between the carrying amount of goodwill and its tax base of nil is a taxable temporary difference. However, this standard does not permit the recognition of the resulting deferred tax liability because goodwill is measured as a residual and the recognition of the deferred tax liability would increase the carrying amount of goodwill.

21A

Subsequent reductions in a deferred tax liability that is unrecognised because it arises from the initial recognition of goodwill are also regarded as arising from the initial recognition of goodwill and are therefore not recognised under paragraph 15(a). For example, if goodwill acquired in a business combination has a cost of 100 but a tax base of nil, paragraph 15(a) prohibits the entity from recognising the resulting deferred tax liability. If the entity subsequently recognises an impairment loss of 20 for that goodwill, the amount of the taxable temporary difference relating to the goodwill is reduced from 100 to 80, with a resulting decrease in the value of the unrecognised deferred tax liability. That decrease in the value of the unrecognised deferred tax liability is also regarded as relating to the initial recognition of the goodwill and is therefore prohibited from being recognised under paragraph 15(a).

21B

Deferred tax liabilities for taxable temporary differences relating to goodwill are, however, recognised to the extent they do not arise from the initial recognition of goodwill. For example, if goodwill acquired in a business combination has a cost of 100 that is deductible for tax purposes at a rate of 20 per cent per year starting in the year of acquisition, the tax base of the goodwill is 100 on initial recognition and 80 at the end of the year of acquisition. If the carrying amount of goodwill at the end of the year of acquisition remains unchanged at 100, a taxable temporary difference of 20 arises at the end of that year. Because that taxable temporary difference does not relate to the initial recognition of the goodwill, the resulting deferred tax liability is recognised.

Initial recognition of an asset or liability

A temporary difference may arise on initial recognition of an asset or liability, for example if part or all of the cost of an asset will not be deductible for tax purposes. The method of accounting for such a temporary difference depends on the nature of the transaction which led to the initial recognition of the asset or liability:

(a)

in a business combination, an entity recognises any deferred tax liability or asset and this affects the amount of goodwill or the amount of any excess over the cost of the combination of the acquirer's interest in the net fair value of the acquiree's identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities (see paragraph 19);

(b)

if the transaction affects either accounting profit or taxable profit, an entity recognises any deferred tax liability or asset and recognises the resulting deferred tax expense or income in the income statement (see paragraph 59);

(c)

if the transaction is not a business combination, and affects neither accounting profit nor taxable profit, an entity would, in the absence of the exemption provided by paragraphs 15 and 24, recognise the resulting deferred tax liability or asset and adjust the carrying amount of the asset or liability by the same amount. Such adjustments would make the financial statements less transparent. Therefore, this standard does not permit an entity to recognise the resulting deferred tax liability or asset, either on initial recognition or subsequently (see example below). Furthermore, an entity does not recognise subsequent changes in the unrecognised deferred tax liability or asset as the asset is depreciated.

Example illustrating paragraph 22(c)

An entity intends to use an asset which cost 1 000 throughout its useful life of five years and then dispose of it for a residual value of nil. The tax rate is 40 %. Depreciation of the asset is not deductible for tax purposes. On disposal, any capital gain would not be taxable and any capital loss would not be deductible.

As it recovers the carrying amount of the asset, the entity will earn taxable income of 1 000 and pay tax of 400. The entity does not recognise the resulting deferred tax liability of 400 because it results from the initial recognition of the asset.

In the following year, the carrying amount of the asset is 800. In earning taxable income of 800, the entity will pay tax of 320. The entity does not recognise the deferred tax liability of 320 because it results from the initial recognition of the asset.

In accordance with IAS 32 Financial instruments: presentation the issuer of a compound financial instrument (for example, a convertible bond) classifies the instrument's liability component as a liability and the equity component as equity. In some jurisdictions, the tax base of the liability component on initial recognition is equal to the initial carrying amount of the sum of the liability and equity components. The resulting taxable temporary difference arises from the initial recognition of the equity component separately from the liability component. Therefore, the exception set out in paragraph 15(b) does not apply. Consequently, an entity recognises the resulting deferred tax liability. In accordance with paragraph 61, the deferred tax is charged directly to the carrying amount of the equity component. In accordance with paragraph 58, subsequent changes in the deferred tax liability are recognised in the income statement as deferred tax expense (income).

Deductible temporary differences

A deferred tax asset shall be recognised for all deductible temporary differences to the extent that it is probable that taxable profit will be available against which the deductible temporary difference can be utilised, unless the deferred tax asset arises from the initial recognition of an asset or liability in a transaction that:

(a)

is not a business combination; and

(b)

at the time of the transaction, affects neither accounting profit nor taxable profit (tax loss).

However, for deductible temporary differences associated with investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates, and interests in joint ventures, a deferred tax asset shall be recognised in accordance with paragraph 44.

It is inherent in the recognition of a liability that the carrying amount will be settled in future periods through an outflow from the entity of resources embodying economic benefits. When resources flow from the entity, part or all of their amounts may be deductible in determining taxable profit of a period later than the period in which the liability is recognised. In such cases, a temporary difference exists between the carrying amount of the liability and its tax base. Accordingly, a deferred tax asset arises in respect of the income taxes that will be recoverable in the future periods when that part of the liability is allowed as a deduction in determining taxable profit. Similarly, if the carrying amount of an asset is less than its tax base, the difference gives rise to a deferred tax asset in respect of the income taxes that will be recoverable in future periods.

Example

An entity recognises a liability of 100 for accrued product warranty costs. For tax purposes, the product warranty costs will not be deductible until the entity pays claims. The tax rate is 25 %.

The tax base of the liability is nil (carrying amount of 100, less the amount that will be deductible for tax purposes in respect of that liability in future periods). In settling the liability for its carrying amount, the entity will reduce its future taxable profit by an amount of 100 and, consequently, reduce its future tax payments by 25 (100 at 25 %). The difference between the carrying amount of 100 and the tax base of nil is a deductible temporary difference of 100. Therefore, the entity recognises a deferred tax asset of 25 (100 at 25 %), provided that it is probable that the entity will earn sufficient taxable profit in future periods to benefit from a reduction in tax payments.

The following are examples of deductible temporary differences which result in deferred tax assets:

(a)

retirement benefit costs may be deducted in determining accounting profit as service is provided by the employee, but deducted in determining taxable profit either when contributions are paid to a fund by the entity or when retirement benefits are paid by the entity. A temporary difference exists between the carrying amount of the liability and its tax base; the tax base of the liability is usually nil. Such a deductible temporary difference results in a deferred tax asset as economic benefits will flow to the entity in the form of a deduction from taxable profits when contributions or retirement benefits are paid;

(b)

research costs are recognised as an expense in determining accounting profit in the period in which they are incurred but may not be permitted as a deduction in determining taxable profit (tax loss) until a later period. The difference between the tax base of the research costs, being the amount the taxation authorities will permit as a deduction in future periods, and the carrying amount of nil is a deductible temporary difference that results in a deferred tax asset;

(c)

the cost of a business combination is allocated by recognising the identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed at their fair values at the acquisition date. When a liability assumed is recognised at the acquisition date but the related costs are not deducted in determining taxable profits until a later period, a deductible temporary difference arises which results in a deferred tax asset. A deferred tax asset also arises when the fair value of an identifiable asset acquired is less than its tax base. In both cases, the resulting deferred tax asset affects goodwill (see paragraph 66); and

(d)

certain assets may be carried at fair value, or may be revalued, without an equivalent adjustment being made for tax purposes (see paragraph 20). A deductible temporary difference arises if the tax base of the asset exceeds its carrying amount.

The reversal of deductible temporary differences results in deductions in determining taxable profits of future periods. However, economic benefits in the form of reductions in tax payments will flow to the entity only if it earns sufficient taxable profits against which the deductions can be offset. Therefore, an entity recognises deferred tax assets only when it is probable that taxable profits will be available against which the deductible temporary differences can be utilised.

It is probable that taxable profit will be available against which a deductible temporary difference can be utilised when there are sufficient taxable temporary differences relating to the same taxation authority and the same taxable entity which are expected to reverse:

(a)

in the same period as the expected reversal of the deductible temporary difference; or

(b)

in periods into which a tax loss arising from the deferred tax asset can be carried back or forward.

In such circumstances, the deferred tax asset is recognised in the period in which the deductible temporary differences arise.

When there are insufficient taxable temporary differences relating to the same taxation authority and the same taxable entity, the deferred tax asset is recognised to the extent that:

(a)

it is probable that the entity will have sufficient taxable profit relating to the same taxation authority and the same taxable entity in the same period as the reversal of the deductible temporary difference (or in the periods into which a tax loss arising from the deferred tax asset can be carried back or forward). In evaluating whether it will have sufficient taxable profit in future periods, an entity ignores taxable amounts arising from deductible temporary differences that are expected to originate in future periods, because the deferred tax asset arising from these deductible temporary differences will itself require future taxable profit in order to be utilised; or

(b)

tax planning opportunities are available to the entity that will create taxable profit in appropriate periods.

Tax planning opportunities are actions that the entity would take in order to create or increase taxable income in a particular period before the expiry of a tax loss or tax credit carryforward. For example, in some jurisdictions, taxable profit may be created or increased by:

(a)

electing to have interest income taxed on either a received or receivable basis;

(b)

deferring the claim for certain deductions from taxable profit;

(c)

selling, and perhaps leasing back, assets that have appreciated but for which the tax base has not been adjusted to reflect such appreciation; and

(d)

selling an asset that generates non-taxable income (such as, in some jurisdictions, a government bond) in order to purchase another investment that generates taxable income.

Where tax planning opportunities advance taxable profit from a later period to an earlier period, the utilisation of a tax loss or tax credit carryforward still depends on the existence of future taxable profit from sources other than future originating temporary differences.

When an entity has a history of recent losses, the entity considers the guidance in paragraphs 35 and 36.

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Initial recognition of an asset or liability

One case when a deferred tax asset arises on initial recognition of an asset is when a non-taxable government grant related to an asset is deducted in arriving at the carrying amount of the asset but, for tax purposes, is not deducted from the asset's depreciable amount (in other words its tax base); the carrying amount of the asset is less than its tax base and this gives rise to a deductible temporary difference. Government grants may also be set up as deferred income in which case the difference between the deferred income and its tax base of nil is a deductible temporary difference. Whichever method of presentation an entity adopts, the entity does not recognise the resulting deferred tax asset, for the reason given in paragraph 22.

Unused tax losses and unused tax credits

A deferred tax asset shall be recognised for the carryforward of unused tax losses and unused tax credits to the extent that it is probable that future taxable profit will be available against which the unused tax losses and unused tax credits can be utilised.

The criteria for recognising deferred tax assets arising from the carryforward of unused tax losses and tax credits are the same as the criteria for recognising deferred tax assets arising from deductible temporary differences. However, the existence of unused tax losses is strong evidence that future taxable profit may not be available. Therefore, when an entity has a history of recent losses, the entity recognises a deferred tax asset arising from unused tax losses or tax credits only to the extent that the entity has sufficient taxable temporary differences or there is convincing other evidence that sufficient taxable profit will be available against which the unused tax losses or unused tax credits can be utilised by the entity. In such circumstances, paragraph 82 requires disclosure of the amount of the deferred tax asset and the nature of the evidence supporting its recognition.

An entity considers the following criteria in assessing the probability that taxable profit will be available against which the unused tax losses or unused tax credits can be utilised:

(a)

whether the entity has sufficient taxable temporary differences relating to the same taxation authority and the same taxable entity, which will result in taxable amounts against which the unused tax losses or unused tax credits can be utilised before they expire;

(b)

whether it is probable that the entity will have taxable profits before the unused tax losses or unused tax credits expire;

(c)

whether the unused tax losses result from identifiable causes which are unlikely to recur; and

(d)

whether tax planning opportunities (see paragraph 30) are available to the entity that will create taxable profit in the period in which the unused tax losses or unused tax credits can be utilised.

To the extent that it is not probable that taxable profit will be available against which the unused tax losses or unused tax credits can be utilised, the deferred tax asset is not recognised.

Reassessment of unrecognised deferred tax assets

At each balance sheet date, an entity reassesses unrecognised deferred tax assets. The entity recognises a previously unrecognised deferred tax asset to the extent that it has become probable that future taxable profit will allow the deferred tax asset to be recovered. For example, an improvement in trading conditions may make it more probable that the entity will be able to generate sufficient taxable profit in the future for the deferred tax asset to meet the recognition criteria set out in paragraph 24 or 34. Another example is when an entity reassesses deferred tax assets at the date of a business combination or subsequently (see paragraphs 67 and 68).

Investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates and interests in joint ventures

Temporary differences arise when the carrying amount of investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates or interests in joint ventures (namely the parent or investor's share of the net assets of the subsidiary, branch, associate or investee, including the carrying amount of goodwill) becomes different from the tax base (which is often cost) of the investment or interest. Such differences may arise in a number of different circumstances, for example:

(a)

the existence of undistributed profits of subsidiaries, branches, associates and joint ventures;

(b)

changes in foreign exchange rates when a parent and its subsidiary are based in different countries; and

(c)

a reduction in the carrying amount of an investment in an associate to its recoverable amount.

In consolidated financial statements, the temporary difference may be different from the temporary difference associated with that investment in the parent's separate financial statements if the parent carries the investment in its separate financial statements at cost or revalued amount.

An entity shall recognise a deferred tax liability for all taxable temporary differences associated with investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates, and interests in joint ventures, except to the extent that both of the following conditions are satisfied:

(a)

the parent, investor or venturer is able to control the timing of the reversal of the temporary difference; and

(b)

it is probable that the temporary difference will not reverse in the foreseeable future.

As a parent controls the dividend policy of its subsidiary, it is able to control the timing of the reversal of temporary differences associated with that investment (including the temporary differences arising not only from undistributed profits but also from any foreign exchange translation differences). Furthermore, it would often be impracticable to determine the amount of income taxes that would be payable when the temporary difference reverses. Therefore, when the parent has determined that those profits will not be distributed in the foreseeable future the parent does not recognise a deferred tax liability. The same considerations apply to investments in branches.

The non-monetary assets and liabilities of an entity are measured in its functional currency (see IAS 21 The effects of changes in foreign exchange rates ). If the entity's taxable profit or tax loss (and, hence, the tax base of its non-monetary assets and liabilities) is determined in a different currency, changes in the exchange rate give rise to temporary differences that result in a recognised deferred tax liability or (subject to paragraph 24) asset. The resulting deferred tax is charged or credited to profit or loss (see paragraph 58).

An investor in an associate does not control that entity and is usually not in a position to determine its dividend policy. Therefore, in the absence of an agreement requiring that the profits of the associate will not be distributed in the foreseeable future, an investor recognises a deferred tax liability arising from taxable temporary differences associated with its investment in the associate. In some cases, an investor may not be able to determine the amount of tax that would be payable if it recovers the cost of its investment in an associate, but can determine that it will equal or exceed a minimum amount. In such cases, the deferred tax liability is measured at this amount.

The arrangement between the parties to a joint venture usually deals with the sharing of the profits and identifies whether decisions on such matters require the consent of all the venturers or a specified majority of the venturers. When the venturer can control the sharing of profits and it is probable that the profits will not be distributed in the foreseeable future, a deferred tax liability is not recognised.

An entity shall recognise a deferred tax asset for all deductible temporary differences arising from investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates, and interests in joint ventures, to the extent that, and only to the extent that, it is probable that:

(a)

the temporary difference will reverse in the foreseeable future; and

(b)

taxable profit will be available against which the temporary difference can be utilised.

In deciding whether a deferred tax asset is recognised for deductible temporary differences associated with its investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates, and its interests in joint ventures, an entity considers the guidance set out in paragraphs 28 to 31.

MEASUREMENT

Current tax liabilities (assets) for the current and prior periods shall be measured at the amount expected to be paid to (recovered from) the taxation authorities, using the tax rates (and tax laws) that have been enacted or substantively enacted by the balance sheet date.

Deferred tax assets and liabilities shall be measured at the tax rates that are expected to apply to the period when the asset is realised or the liability is settled, based on tax rates (and tax laws) that have been enacted or substantively enacted by the balance sheet date.

Current and deferred tax assets and liabilities are usually measured using the tax rates (and tax laws) that have been enacted. However, in some jurisdictions, announcements of tax rates (and tax laws) by the government have the substantive effect of actual enactment, which may follow the announcement by a period of several months. In these circumstances, tax assets and liabilities are measured using the announced tax rate (and tax laws).

When different tax rates apply to different levels of taxable income, deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured using the average rates that are expected to apply to the taxable profit (tax loss) of the periods in which the temporary differences are expected to reverse.

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The measurement of deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets shall reflect the tax consequences that would follow from the manner in which the entity expects, at the balance sheet date, to recover or settle the carrying amount of its assets and liabilities.

In some jurisdictions, the manner in which an entity recovers (settles) the carrying amount of an asset (liability) may affect either or both of:

(a)

the tax rate applicable when the entity recovers (settles) the carrying amount of the asset (liability); and

(b)

the tax base of the asset (liability).

In such cases, an entity measures deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets using the tax rate and the tax base that are consistent with the expected manner of recovery or settlement.

Example A

An asset has a carrying amount of 100 and a tax base of 60. A tax rate of 20 % would apply if the asset were sold and a tax rate of 30 % would apply to other income.

The entity recognises a deferred tax liability of 8 (40 at 20 %) if it expects to sell the asset without further use and a deferred tax liability of 12 (40 at 30 %) if it expects to retain the asset and recover its carrying amount through use.

Example B

An asset with a cost of 100 and a carrying amount of 80 is revalued to 150. No equivalent adjustment is made for tax purposes. Cumulative depreciation for tax purposes is 30 and the tax rate is 30 %. If the asset is sold for more than cost, the cumulative tax depreciation of 30 will be included in taxable income but sale proceeds in excess of cost will not be taxable.

The tax base of the asset is 70 and there is a taxable temporary difference of 80. If the entity expects to recover the carrying amount by using the asset, it must generate taxable income of 150, but will only be able to deduct depreciation of 70. On this basis, there is a deferred tax liability of 24 (80 at 30 %). If the entity expects to recover the carrying amount by selling the asset immediately for proceeds of 150, the deferred tax liability is computed as follows:

Taxable Temporary Difference

Tax Rate

Deferred Tax Liability

Cumulative tax depreciation

30 %

Proceeds in excess of cost

nil

—

Total

(note: in accordance with paragraph 61, the additional deferred tax that arises on the revaluation is charged directly to equity)

Example C

The facts are as in example B, except that if the asset is sold for more than cost, the cumulative tax depreciation will be included in taxable income (taxed at 30 %) and the sale proceeds will be taxed at 40 %, after deducting an inflation-adjusted cost of 110.

If the entity expects to recover the carrying amount by using the asset, it must generate taxable income of 150, but will only be able to deduct depreciation of 70. On this basis, the tax base is 70, there is a taxable temporary difference of 80 and there is a deferred tax liability of 24 (80 at 30 %), as in example B.

If the entity expects to recover the carrying amount by selling the asset immediately for proceeds of 150, the entity will be able to deduct the indexed cost of 110. The net proceeds of 40 will be taxed at 40 %. In addition, the cumulative tax depreciation of 30 will be included in taxable income and taxed at 30 %. On this basis, the tax base is 80 (110 less 30), there is a taxable temporary difference of 70 and there is a deferred tax liability of 25 (40 at 40 % plus 30 at 30 %). If the tax base is not immediately apparent in this example, it may be helpful to consider the fundamental principle set out in paragraph 10.

(note: in accordance with paragraph 61, the additional deferred tax that arises on the revaluation is charged directly to equity)

52A

In some jurisdictions, income taxes are payable at a higher or lower rate if part or all of the net profit or retained earnings is paid out as a dividend to shareholders of the entity. In some other jurisdictions, income taxes may be refundable or payable if part or all of the net profit or retained earnings is paid out as a dividend to shareholders of the entity. In these circumstances, current and deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured at the tax rate applicable to undistributed profits.

52B

In the circumstances described in paragraph 52A, the income tax consequences of dividends are recognised when a liability to pay the dividend is recognised. The income tax consequences of dividends are more directly linked to past transactions or events than to distributions to owners. Therefore, the income tax consequences of dividends are recognised in profit or loss for the period as required by paragraph 58 except to the extent that the income tax consequences of dividends arise from the circumstances described in paragraph 58(a) and (b).

Example illustrating paragraphs 52A and 52B

The following example deals with the measurement of current and deferred tax assets and liabilities for an entity in a jurisdiction where income taxes are payable at a higher rate on undistributed profits (50 %) with an amount being refundable when profits are distributed. The tax rate on distributed profits is 35 %. At the balance sheet date, 31 December 20X1, the entity does not recognise a liability for dividends proposed or declared after the balance sheet date. As a result, no dividends are recognised in the year 20X1. Taxable income for 20X1 is 100 000. The net taxable temporary difference for the year 20X1 is 40 000.

The entity recognises a current tax liability and a current income tax expense of 50 000. No asset is recognised for the amount potentially recoverable as a result of future dividends. The entity also recognises a deferred tax liability and deferred tax expense of 20 000 (40 000 at 50 %) representing the income taxes that the entity will pay when it recovers or settles the carrying amounts of its assets and liabilities based on the tax rate applicable to undistributed profits.

Subsequently, on 15 March 20X2 the entity recognises dividends of 10 000 from previous operating profits as a liability.

On 15 March 20X2, the entity recognises the recovery of income taxes of 1 500 (15 % of the dividends recognised as a liability) as a current tax asset and as a reduction of current income tax expense for 20X2.

Deferred tax assets and liabilities shall not be discounted.

The reliable determination of deferred tax assets and liabilities on a discounted basis requires detailed scheduling of the timing of the reversal of each temporary difference. In many cases such scheduling is impracticable or highly complex. Therefore, it is inappropriate to require discounting of deferred tax assets and liabilities. To permit, but not to require, discounting would result in deferred tax assets and liabilities which would not be comparable between entities. Therefore, this standard does not require or permit the discounting of deferred tax assets and liabilities.

Temporary differences are determined by reference to the carrying amount of an asset or liability. This applies even where that carrying amount is itself determined on a discounted basis, for example in the case of retirement benefit obligations (see IAS 19 Employee benefits ).

The carrying amount of a deferred tax asset shall be reviewed at each balance sheet date. An entity shall reduce the carrying amount of a deferred tax asset to the extent that it is no longer probable that sufficient taxable profit will be available to allow the benefit of part or all of that deferred tax asset to be utilised. Any such reduction shall be reversed to the extent that it becomes probable that sufficient taxable profit will be available.

RECOGNITION OF CURRENT AND DEFERRED TAX

Accounting for the current and deferred tax effects of a transaction or other event is consistent with the accounting for the transaction or event itself. Paragraphs 58 to 68C implement this principle.

Income statement

Current and deferred tax shall be recognised as income or an expense and included in profit or loss for the period, except to the extent that the tax arises from:

(a)

a transaction or event which is recognised, in the same or a different period, directly in equity (see paragraphs 61 to 65); or

(b)

a business combination (see paragraphs 66 to 68).

Most deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets arise where income or expense is included in accounting profit in one period, but is included in taxable profit (tax loss) in a different period. The resulting deferred tax is recognised in the income statement. Examples are when:

(a)

interest, royalty or dividend revenue is received in arrears and is included in accounting profit on a time apportionment basis in accordance with IAS 18 Revenue , but is included in taxable profit (tax loss) on a cash basis; and

(b)

costs of intangible assets have been capitalised in accordance with IAS 38 and are being amortised in the income statement, but were deducted for tax purposes when they were incurred.

The carrying amount of deferred tax assets and liabilities may change even though there is no change in the amount of the related temporary differences. This can result, for example, from:

(a)

a change in tax rates or tax laws;

(b)

a reassessment of the recoverability of deferred tax assets; or

(c)

a change in the expected manner of recovery of an asset.

The resulting deferred tax is recognised in the income statement, except to the extent that it relates to items previously charged or credited to equity (see paragraph 63).

Items credited or charged directly to equity

Current tax and deferred tax shall be charged or credited directly to equity if the tax relates to items that are credited or charged, in the same or a different period, directly to equity.

International financial reporting standards require or permit certain items to be credited or charged directly to equity. Examples of such items are:

(a)

a change in carrying amount arising from the revaluation of property, plant and equipment (see IAS 16);

(b)

an adjustment to the opening balance of retained earnings resulting from either a change in accounting policy that is applied retrospectively or the correction of an error (see IAS 8 Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and errors );

(c)

exchange differences arising on the translation of the financial statements of a foreign operation (see IAS 21); and

(d)

amounts arising on initial recognition of the equity component of a compound financial instrument (see paragraph 23).

In exceptional circumstances it may be difficult to determine the amount of current and deferred tax that relates to items credited or charged to equity. This may be the case, for example, when:

(a)

there are graduated rates of income tax and it is impossible to determine the rate at which a specific component of taxable profit (tax loss) has been taxed;

(b)

a change in the tax rate or other tax rules affects a deferred tax asset or liability relating (in whole or in part) to an item that was previously charged or credited to equity; or

(c)

an entity determines that a deferred tax asset should be recognised, or should no longer be recognised in full, and the deferred tax asset relates (in whole or in part) to an item that was previously charged or credited to equity.

In such cases, the current and deferred tax related to items that are credited or charged to equity is based on a reasonable pro rata allocation of the current and deferred tax of the entity in the tax jurisdiction concerned, or other method that achieves a more appropriate allocation in the circumstances.

IAS 16 does not specify whether an entity should transfer each year from revaluation surplus to retained earnings an amount equal to the difference between the depreciation or amortisation on a revalued asset and the depreciation or amortisation based on the cost of that asset. If an entity makes such a transfer, the amount transferred is net of any related deferred tax. Similar considerations apply to transfers made on disposal of an item of property, plant or equipment.

When an asset is revalued for tax purposes and that revaluation is related to an accounting revaluation of an earlier period, or to one that is expected to be carried out in a future period, the tax effects of both the asset revaluation and the adjustment of the tax base are credited or charged to equity in the periods in which they occur. However, if the revaluation for tax purposes is not related to an accounting revaluation of an earlier period, or to one that is expected to be carried out in a future period, the tax effects of the adjustment of the tax base are recognised in the income statement.

65A

When an entity pays dividends to its shareholders, it may be required to pay a portion of the dividends to taxation authorities on behalf of shareholders. In many jurisdictions, this amount is referred to as a withholding tax. Such an amount paid or payable to taxation authorities is charged to equity as a part of the dividends.

Deferred tax arising from a business combination

As explained in paragraphs 19 and 26(c), temporary differences may arise in a business combination. In accordance with IFRS 3 Business combinations , an entity recognises any resulting deferred tax assets (to the extent that they meet the recognition criteria in paragraph 24) or deferred tax liabilities as identifiable assets and liabilities at the acquisition date. Consequently, those deferred tax assets and liabilities affect goodwill or the amount of any excess of the acquirer's interest in the net fair value of the acquiree's identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities over the cost of the combination. However, in accordance with paragraph 15(a), an entity does not recognise deferred tax liabilities arising from the initial recognition of goodwill.

As a result of a business combination, an acquirer may consider it probable that it will recover its own deferred tax asset that was not recognised before the business combination. For example, the acquirer may be able to utilise the benefit of its unused tax losses against the future taxable profit of the acquiree. In such cases, the acquirer recognises a deferred tax asset, but does not include it as part of the accounting for the business combination, and therefore does not take it into account in determining the goodwill or the amount of any excess of the acquirer's interest in the net fair value of the acquiree's identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities over the cost of the combination.

If the potential benefit of the acquiree's income tax loss carryforwards or other deferred tax assets did not satisfy the criteria in IFRS 3 for separate recognition when a business combination is initially accounted for but is subsequently realised, the acquirer shall recognise the resulting deferred tax income in profit or loss. In addition, the acquirer shall:

(a)

reduce the carrying amount of goodwill to the amount that would have been recognised if the deferred tax asset had been recognised as an identifiable asset from the acquisition date; and

(b)

recognise the reduction in the carrying amount of goodwill as an expense.

However, this procedure shall not result in the creation of an excess of the acquirer's interest in the net fair value of the acquiree's identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities over the cost of the combination, nor shall it increase the amount previously recognised for any such excess.

Example

An entity acquired a subsidiary that had deductible temporary differences of 300. The tax rate at the time of the acquisition was 30 per cent. The resulting deferred tax asset of 90 was not recognised as an identifiable asset in determining the goodwill of 500 that resulted from the business combination. Two years after the combination, the entity assessed that future taxable profit should be sufficient to recover the benefit of all the deductible temporary differences.

The entity recognises a deferred tax asset of 90 and, in profit or loss, deferred tax income of 90. The entity also reduces the carrying amount of goodwill by 90 and recognises an expense for this amount in profit or loss. Consequently, the cost of the goodwill is reduced to 410, being the amount that would have been recognised had the deferred tax asset of 90 been recognised as an identifiable asset at the acquisition date.

If the tax rate had increased to 40 per cent, the entity would have recognised a deferred tax asset of 120 (300 at 40 per cent) and, in profit or loss, deferred tax income of 120. If the tax rate had decreased to 20 per cent, the entity would have recognised a deferred tax asset of 60 (300 at 20 per cent) and deferred tax income of 60. In both cases, the entity would also reduce the carrying amount of goodwill by 90 and recognise an expense for that amount in profit or loss.

Current and deferred tax arising from share-based payment transactions

68A

In some tax jurisdictions, an entity receives a tax deduction (i.e. an amount that is deductible in determining taxable profit) that relates to remuneration paid in shares, share options or other equity instruments of the entity. The amount of that tax deduction may differ from the related cumulative remuneration expense, and may arise in a later accounting period. For example, in some jurisdictions, an entity may recognise an expense for the consumption of employee services received as consideration for share options granted, in accordance with IFRS 2 Share-based payment , and not receive a tax deduction until the share options are exercised, with the measurement of the tax deduction based on the entity's share price at the date of exercise.

68B

As with the research costs discussed in paragraphs 9 and 26(b) of this standard, the difference between the tax base of the employee services received to date (being the amount the taxation authorities will permit as a deduction in future periods), and the carrying amount of nil, is a deductible temporary difference that results in a deferred tax asset. If the amount the taxation authorities will permit as a deduction in future periods is not known at the end of the period, it shall be estimated, based on information available at the end of the period. For example, if the amount that the taxation authorities will permit as a deduction in future periods is dependent upon the entity's share price at a future date, the measurement of the deductible temporary difference should be based on the entity's share price at the end of the period.

68C

As noted in paragraph 68A, the amount of the tax deduction (or estimated future tax deduction, measured in accordance with paragraph 68B) may differ from the related cumulative remuneration expense. Paragraph 58 of the standard requires that current and deferred tax should be recognised as income or an expense and included in profit or loss for the period, except to the extent that the tax arises from (a) a transaction or event which is recognised, in the same or a different period, directly in equity, or (b) a business combination. If the amount of the tax deduction (or estimated future tax deduction) exceeds the amount of the related cumulative remuneration expense, this indicates that the tax deduction relates not only to remuneration expense but also to an equity item. In this situation, the excess of the associated current or deferred tax should be recognised directly in equity.

PRESENTATION

Tax assets and tax liabilities

[Deleted]

Offset

An entity shall offset current tax assets and current tax liabilities if, and only if, the entity:

(a)

has a legally enforceable right to set off the recognised amounts; and

(b)

intends either to settle on a net basis, or to realise the asset and settle the liability simultaneously.

Although current tax assets and liabilities are separately recognised and measured they are offset in the balance sheet subject to criteria similar to those established for financial instruments in IAS 32. An entity will normally have a legally enforceable right to set off a current tax asset against a current tax liability when they relate to income taxes levied by the same taxation authority and the taxation authority permits the entity to make or receive a single net payment.

In consolidated financial statements, a current tax asset of one entity in a group is offset against a current tax liability of another entity in the group if, and only if, the entities concerned have a legally enforceable right to make or receive a single net payment and the entities intend to make or receive such a net payment or to recover the asset and settle the liability simultaneously.

An entity shall offset deferred tax assets and deferred tax liabilities if, and only if:

(a)

the entity has a legally enforceable right to set off current tax assets against current tax liabilities; and

(b)

the deferred tax assets and the deferred tax liabilities relate to income taxes levied by the same taxation authority on either:

(i)

the same taxable entity; or

(ii)

different taxable entities which intend either to settle current tax liabilities and assets on a net basis, or to realise the assets and settle the liabilities simultaneously, in each future period in which significant amounts of deferred tax liabilities or assets are expected to be settled or recovered.

To avoid the need for detailed scheduling of the timing of the reversal of each temporary difference, this standard requires an entity to set off a deferred tax asset against a deferred tax liability of the same taxable entity if, and only if, they relate to income taxes levied by the same taxation authority and the entity has a legally enforceable right to set off current tax assets against current tax liabilities.

In rare circumstances, an entity may have a legally enforceable right of set-off, and an intention to settle net, for some periods but not for others. In such rare circumstances, detailed scheduling may be required to establish reliably whether the deferred tax liability of one taxable entity will result in increased tax payments in the same period in which a deferred tax asset of another taxable entity will result in decreased payments by that second taxable entity.

Tax expense

Tax expense (income) related to profit or loss from ordinary activities

The tax expense (income) related to profit or loss from ordinary activities shall be presented on the face of the income statement.

Exchange differences on deferred foreign tax liabilities or assets

IAS 21 requires certain exchange differences to be recognised as income or expense but does not specify where such differences should be presented in the income statement. Accordingly, where exchange differences on deferred foreign tax liabilities or assets are recognised in the income statement, such differences may be classified as deferred tax expense (income) if that presentation is considered to be the most useful to financial statement users.

DISCLOSURE

The major components of tax expense (income) shall be disclosed separately.

Components of tax expense (income) may include:

(a)

current tax expense (income);

(b)

any adjustments recognised in the period for current tax of prior periods;

(c)

the amount of deferred tax expense (income) relating to the origination and reversal of temporary differences;

(d)

the amount of deferred tax expense (income) relating to changes in tax rates or the imposition of new taxes;

(e)

the amount of the benefit arising from a previously unrecognised tax loss, tax credit or temporary difference of a prior period that is used to reduce current tax expense;

(f)

the amount of the benefit from a previously unrecognised tax loss, tax credit or temporary difference of a prior period that is used to reduce deferred tax expense;

(g)

deferred tax expense arising from the write-down, or reversal of a previous write-down, of a deferred tax asset in accordance with paragraph 56; and

(h)

the amount of tax expense (income) relating to those changes in accounting policies and errors that are included in profit or loss in accordance with IAS 8, because they cannot be accounted for retrospectively.

The following shall also be disclosed separately:

(a)

the aggregate current and deferred tax relating to items that are charged or credited to equity;

(b)

[deleted]

(c)

an explanation of the relationship between tax expense (income) and accounting profit in either or both of the following forms:

(i)

a numerical reconciliation between tax expense (income) and the product of accounting profit multiplied by the applicable tax rate(s), disclosing also the basis on which the applicable tax rate(s) is (are) computed; or

(ii)

a numerical reconciliation between the average effective tax rate and the applicable tax rate, disclosing also the basis on which the applicable tax rate is computed;

(d)

an explanation of changes in the applicable tax rate(s) compared to the previous accounting period;

(e)

the amount (and expiry date, if any) of deductible temporary differences, unused tax losses, and unused tax credits for which no deferred tax asset is recognised in the balance sheet;

(f)

the aggregate amount of temporary differences associated with investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates and interests in joint ventures, for which deferred tax liabilities have not been recognised (see paragraph 39);

(g)

in respect of each type of temporary difference, and in respect of each type of unused tax losses and unused tax credits:

(i)

the amount of the deferred tax assets and liabilities recognised in the balance sheet for each period presented;

(ii)

the amount of the deferred tax income or expense recognised in the income statement, if this is not apparent from the changes in the amounts recognised in the balance sheet;

(h)

in respect of discontinued operations, the tax expense relating to:

(i)

the gain or loss on discontinuance; and

(ii)

the profit or loss from the ordinary activities of the discontinued operation for the period, together with the corresponding amounts for each prior period presented; and

(i)

the amount of income tax consequences of dividends to shareholders of the entity that were proposed or declared before the financial statements were authorised for issue, but are not recognised as a liability in the financial statements.

An entity shall disclose the amount of a deferred tax asset and the nature of the evidence supporting its recognition, when:

(a)

the utilisation of the deferred tax asset is dependent on future taxable profits in excess of the profits arising from the reversal of existing taxable temporary differences; and

(b)

the entity has suffered a loss in either the current or preceding period in the tax jurisdiction to which the deferred tax asset relates.

82A

In the circumstances described in paragraph 52A, an entity shall disclose the nature of the potential income tax consequences that would result from the payment of dividends to its shareholders. In addition, the entity shall disclose the amounts of the potential income tax consequences practicably determinable and whether there are any potential income tax consequences not practicably determinable.

[Deleted]

The disclosures required by paragraph 81(c) enable users of financial statements to understand whether the relationship between tax expense (income) and accounting profit is unusual and to understand the significant factors that could affect that relationship in the future. The relationship between tax expense (income) and accounting profit may be affected by such factors as revenue that is exempt from taxation, expenses that are not deductible in determining taxable profit (tax loss), the effect of tax losses and the effect of foreign tax rates.

In explaining the relationship between tax expense (income) and accounting profit, an entity uses an applicable tax rate that provides the most meaningful information to the users of its financial statements. Often, the most meaningful rate is the domestic rate of tax in the country in which the entity is domiciled, aggregating the tax rate applied for national taxes with the rates applied for any local taxes which are computed on a substantially similar level of taxable profit (tax loss). However, for an entity operating in several jurisdictions, it may be more meaningful to aggregate separate reconciliations prepared using the domestic rate in each individual jurisdiction. The following example illustrates how the selection of the applicable tax rate affects the presentation of the numerical reconciliation.

Example illustrating paragraph 85

In 19X2, an entity has accounting profit in its own jurisdiction (country A) of 1 500 (19X1: 2 000) and in country B of 1 500 (19X1: 500). The tax rate is 30 % in country A and 20 % in country B. In country A, expenses of 100 (19X1: 200) are not deductible for tax purposes.

The following is an example of a reconciliation to the domestic tax rate.

19X1

19X2

Accounting profit

2 500

3 000

Tax at the domestic rate of 30 %

750

900

Tax effect of expenses that are not deductible for tax purposes

Effect of lower tax rates in country B

(50)

(150)

Tax expense

760

780

The following is an example of a reconciliation prepared by aggregating separate reconciliations for each national jurisdiction. Under this method, the effect of differences between the reporting entity's own domestic tax rate and the domestic tax rate in other jurisdictions does not appear as a separate item in the reconciliation. An entity may need to discuss the effect of significant changes in either tax rates, or the mix of profits earned in different jurisdictions, in order to explain changes in the applicable tax rate(s), as required by paragraph 81(d).

Accounting profit

2 500

3 000

Tax at the domestic rates applicable to profits in the country concerned

700

750

Tax effect of expenses that are not deductible for tax purposes

Tax expense

760

780

The average effective tax rate is the tax expense (income) divided by the accounting profit.

It would often be impracticable to compute the amount of unrecognised deferred tax liabilities arising from investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates and interests in joint ventures (see paragraph 39). Therefore, this standard requires an entity to disclose the aggregate amount of the underlying temporary differences but does not require disclosure of the deferred tax liabilities. Nevertheless, where practicable, entities are encouraged to disclose the amounts of the unrecognised deferred tax liabilities because financial statement users may find such information useful.

87A

Paragraph 82A requires an entity to disclose the nature of the potential income tax consequences that would result from the payment of dividends to its shareholders. An entity discloses the important features of the income tax systems and the factors that will affect the amount of the potential income tax consequences of dividends.

87B

It would sometimes not be practicable to compute the total amount of the potential income tax consequences that would result from the payment of dividends to shareholders. This may be the case, for example, where an entity has a large number of foreign subsidiaries. However, even in such circumstances, some portions of the total amount may be easily determinable. For example, in a consolidated group, a parent and some of its subsidiaries may have paid income taxes at a higher rate on undistributed profits and be aware of the amount that would be refunded on the payment of future dividends to shareholders from consolidated retained earnings. In this case, that refundable amount is disclosed. If applicable, the entity also discloses that there are additional potential income tax consequences not practicably determinable. In the parent's separate financial statements, if any, the disclosure of the potential income tax consequences relates to the parent's retained earnings.

87C

An entity required to provide the disclosures in paragraph 82A may also be required to provide disclosures related to temporary differences associated with investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates or interests in joint ventures. In such cases, an entity considers this in determining the information to be disclosed under paragraph 82A. For example, an entity may be required to disclose the aggregate amount of temporary differences associated with investments in subsidiaries for which no deferred tax liabilities have been recognised (see paragraph 81(f)). If it is impracticable to compute the amounts of unrecognised deferred tax liabilities (see paragraph 87) there may be amounts of potential income tax consequences of dividends not practicably determinable related to these subsidiaries.

An entity discloses any tax-related contingent liabilities and contingent assets in accordance with IAS 37 Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets . Contingent liabilities and contingent assets may arise, for example, from unresolved disputes with the taxation authorities. Similarly, where changes in tax rates or tax laws are enacted or announced after the balance sheet date, an entity discloses any significant effect of those changes on its current and deferred tax assets and liabilities (see IAS 10 Events after the balance sheet date ).

EFFECTIVE DATE

This standard becomes operative for financial statements covering periods beginning on or after 1 January 1998, except as specified in paragraph 91. If an entity applies this standard for financial statements covering periods beginning before 1 January 1998, the entity shall disclose the fact it has applied this standard instead of IAS 12 Accounting for Taxes on Income , approved in 1979.

This standard supersedes IAS 12 Accounting for taxes on income , approved in 1979.

Paragraphs 52A, 52B, 65A, 81(i), 82A, 87A, 87B, 87C and the deletion of paragraphs 3 and 50 become operative for annual financial statements ( 1 ) covering periods beginning on or after 1 January 2001. Earlier adoption is encouraged. If earlier adoption affects the financial statements, an entity shall disclose that fact.

( 1 ) Under this analysis, there is no taxable temporary difference. An alternative analysis is that the accrued dividends receivable have a tax base of nil and that a tax rate of nil is applied to the resulting taxable temporary difference of 100. Under both analyses, there is no deferred tax liability.

( 2 ) Under this analysis, there is no deductible temporary difference. An alternative analysis is that the accrued fines and penalties payable have a tax base of nil and that a tax rate of nil is applied to the resulting deductible temporary difference of 100. Under both analyses, there is no deferred tax asset.

( 1 ) Paragraph 91 refers to ‘annual financial statements’ in line with more explicit language for writing effective dates adopted in 1998. Paragraph 89 refers to ‘financial statements’.

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 16

Property, plant and equipment

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this standard is to prescribe the accounting treatment for property, plant and equipment so that users of the financial statements can discern information about an entity's investment in its property, plant and equipment and the changes in such investment. The principal issues in accounting for property, plant and equipment are the recognition of the assets, the determination of their carrying amounts and the depreciation charges and impairment losses to be recognised in relation to them.

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied in accounting for property, plant and equipment except when another standard requires or permits a different accounting treatment.

This standard does not apply to:

(a)

property, plant and equipment classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5 Non-current assets held for sale and discontinued operations ;

(b)

biological assets related to agricultural activity (see IAS 41 Agriculture );

(c)

the recognition and measurement of exploration and evaluation assets (see IFRS 6 Exploration for and evaluation of mineral resources ); or

(d)

mineral rights and mineral reserves such as oil, natural gas and similar non-regenerative resources.

However, this standard applies to property, plant and equipment used to develop or maintain the assets described in (b)-(d).

Other standards may require recognition of an item of property, plant and equipment based on an approach different from that in this standard. For example, IAS 17 Leases requires an entity to evaluate its recognition of an item of leased property, plant and equipment on the basis of the transfer of risks and rewards. However, in such cases other aspects of the accounting treatment for these assets, including depreciation, are prescribed by this standard.

An entity shall apply this standard to property that is being constructed or developed for future use as investment property but does not yet satisfy the definition of ‘investment property’ in IAS 40 Investment property . Once the construction or development is complete, the property becomes investment property and the entity is required to apply IAS 40. IAS 40 also applies to investment property that is being redeveloped for continued future use as investment property. An entity using the cost model for investment property in accordance with IAS 40 shall use the cost model in this standard.

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

Carrying amount is the amount at which an asset is recognised after deducting any accumulated depreciation and accumulated impairment losses.

Cost is the amount of cash or cash equivalents paid or the fair value of the other consideration given to acquire an asset at the time of its acquisition or construction or, where applicable, the amount attributed to that asset when initially recognised in accordance with the specific requirements of other IFRSs, e.g. IFRS 2 Share-based payment .

Depreciable amount is the cost of an asset, or other amount substituted for cost, less its residual value.

Depreciation is the systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an asset over its useful life.

Entity-specific value is the present value of the cash flows an entity expects to arise from the continuing use of an asset and from its disposal at the end of its useful life or expects to incur when settling a liability.

Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm's length transaction.

An impairment loss is the amount by which the carrying amount of an asset exceeds its recoverable amount.

Property, plant and equipment are tangible items that:

(a)

are held for use in the production or supply of goods or services, for rental to others, or for administrative purposes; and

(b)

are expected to be used during more than one period.

Recoverable amount is the higher of an asset's net selling price and its value in use.

The residual value of an asset is the estimated amount that an entity would currently obtain from disposal of the asset, after deducting the estimated costs of disposal, if the asset were already of the age and in the condition expected at the end of its useful life.

Useful life is:

(a)

the period over which an asset is expected to be available for use by an entity; or

(b)

the number of production or similar units expected to be obtained from the asset by an entity.

RECOGNITION

The cost of an item of property, plant and equipment shall be recognised as an asset if, and only if:

(a)

it is probable that future economic benefits associated with the item will flow to the entity; and

(b)

the cost of the item can be measured reliably.

Spare parts and servicing equipment are usually carried as inventory and recognised in profit or loss as consumed. However, major spare parts and stand-by equipment qualify as property, plant and equipment when an entity expects to use them during more than one period. Similarly, if the spare parts and servicing equipment can be used only in connection with an item of property, plant and equipment, they are accounted for as property, plant and equipment.

This standard does not prescribe the unit of measure for recognition, i.e. what constitutes an item of property, plant and equipment. Thus, judgement is required in applying the recognition criteria to an entity's specific circumstances. It may be appropriate to aggregate individually insignificant items, such as moulds, tools and dies, and to apply the criteria to the aggregate value.

An entity evaluates under this recognition principle all its property, plant and equipment costs at the time they are incurred. These costs include costs incurred initially to acquire or construct an item of property, plant and equipment and costs incurred subsequently to add to, replace part of, or service it.

Initial costs

Items of property, plant and equipment may be acquired for safety or environmental reasons. The acquisition of such property, plant and equipment, although not directly increasing the future economic benefits of any particular existing item of property, plant and equipment, may be necessary for an entity to obtain the future economic benefits from its other assets. Such items of property, plant and equipment qualify for recognition as assets because they enable an entity to derive future economic benefits from related assets in excess of what could be derived had those items not been acquired. For example, a chemical manufacturer may install new chemical handling processes to comply with environmental requirements for the production and storage of dangerous chemicals; related plant enhancements are recognised as an asset because without them the entity is unable to manufacture and sell chemicals. However, the resulting carrying amount of such an asset and related assets is reviewed for impairment in accordance with IAS 36 Impairment of assets .

Subsequent costs

Under the recognition principle in paragraph 7, an entity does not recognise in the carrying amount of an item of property, plant and equipment the costs of the day-to-day servicing of the item. Rather, these costs are recognised in profit or loss as incurred. Costs of day-to-day servicing are primarily the costs of labour and consumables, and may include the cost of small parts. The purpose of these expenditures is often described as for the ‘repairs and maintenance’ of the item of property, plant and equipment.

Parts of some items of property, plant and equipment may require replacement at regular intervals. For example, a furnace may require relining after a specified number of hours of use, or aircraft interiors such as seats and galleys may require replacement several times during the life of the airframe. Items of property, plant and equipment may also be acquired to make a less frequently recurring replacement, such as replacing the interior walls of a building, or to make a nonrecurring replacement. Under the recognition principle in paragraph 7, an entity recognises in the carrying amount of an item of property, plant and equipment the cost of replacing part of such an item when that cost is incurred if the recognition criteria are met. The carrying amount of those parts that are replaced is derecognised in accordance with the derecognition provisions of this standard (see paragraphs 67-72).

A condition of continuing to operate an item of property, plant and equipment (for example, an aircraft) may be performing regular major inspections for faults regardless of whether parts of the item are replaced. When each major inspection is performed, its cost is recognised in the carrying amount of the item of property, plant and equipment as a replacement if the recognition criteria are satisfied. Any remaining carrying amount of the cost of the previous inspection (as distinct from physical parts) is derecognised. This occurs regardless of whether the cost of the previous inspection was identified in the transaction in which the item was acquired or constructed. If necessary, the estimated cost of a future similar inspection may be used as an indication of what the cost of the existing inspection component was when the item was acquired or constructed.

MEASUREMENT AT RECOGNITION

An item of property, plant and equipment that qualifies for recognition as an asset shall be measured at its cost.

Elements of cost

The cost of an item of property, plant and equipment comprises:

(a)

its purchase price, including import duties and non-refundable purchase taxes, after deducting trade discounts and rebates;

(b)

any costs directly attributable to bringing the asset to the location and condition necessary for it to be capable of operating in the manner intended by management;

(c)

the initial estimate of the costs of dismantling and removing the item and restoring the site on which it is located, the obligation for which an entity incurs either when the item is acquired or as a consequence of having used the item during a particular period for purposes other than to produce inventories during that period.

Examples of directly attributable costs are:

(a)

costs of employee benefits (as defined in IAS 19 Employee benefits ) arising directly from the construction or acquisition of the item of property, plant and equipment;

(b)

costs of site preparation;

(c)

initial delivery and handling costs;

(d)

installation and assembly costs;

(e)

costs of testing whether the asset is functioning properly, after deducting the net proceeds from selling any items produced while bringing the asset to that location and condition (such as samples produced when testing equipment); and

(f)

professional fees.

An entity applies IAS 2 Inventories to the costs of obligations for dismantling, removing and restoring the site on which an item is located that are incurred during a particular period as a consequence of having used the item to produce inventories during that period. The obligations for costs accounted for in accordance with IAS 2 or IAS 16 are recognised and measured in accordance with IAS 37 Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets .

Examples of costs that are not costs of an item of property, plant and equipment are:

(a)

costs of opening a new facility;

(b)

costs of introducing a new product or service (including costs of advertising and promotional activities);

(c)

costs of conducting business in a new location or with a new class of customer (including costs of staff training); and

(d)

administration and other general overhead costs.

Recognition of costs in the carrying amount of an item of property, plant and equipment ceases when the item is in the location and condition necessary for it to be capable of operating in the manner intended by management. Therefore, costs incurred in using or redeploying an item are not included in the carrying amount of that item. For example, the following costs are not included in the carrying amount of an item of property, plant and equipment:

(a)

costs incurred while an item capable of operating in the manner intended by management has yet to be brought into use or is operated at less than full capacity;

(b)

initial operating losses, such as those incurred while demand for the item's output builds up; and

(c)

costs of relocating or reorganising part or all of an entity's operations.

Some operations occur in connection with the construction or development of an item of property, plant and equipment, but are not necessary to bring the item to the location and condition necessary for it to be capable of operating in the manner intended by management. These incidental operations may occur before or during the construction or development activities. For example, income may be earned through using a building site as a car park until construction starts. Because incidental operations are not necessary to bring an item to the location and condition necessary for it to be capable of operating in the manner intended by management, the income and related expenses of incidental operations are recognised in profit or loss and included in their respective classifications of income and expense.

The cost of a self-constructed asset is determined using the same principles as for an acquired asset. If an entity makes similar assets for sale in the normal course of business, the cost of the asset is usually the same as the cost of constructing an asset for sale (see IAS 2). Therefore, any internal profits are eliminated in arriving at such costs. Similarly, the cost of abnormal amounts of wasted material, labour, or other resources incurred in self-constructing an asset is not included in the cost of the asset. IAS 23 Borrowing costs establishes criteria for the recognition of interest as a component of the carrying amount of a self-constructed item of property, plant and equipment.

Measurement of cost

The cost of an item of property, plant and equipment is the cash price equivalent at the recognition date. If payment is deferred beyond normal credit terms, the difference between the cash price equivalent and the total payment is recognised as interest over the period of credit unless such interest is recognised in the carrying amount of the item in accordance with the allowed alternative treatment in IAS 23.

One or more items of property, plant and equipment may be acquired in exchange for a non-monetary asset or assets, or a combination of monetary and non-monetary assets. The following discussion refers simply to an exchange of one non-monetary asset for another, but it also applies to all exchanges described in the preceding sentence. The cost of such an item of property, plant and equipment is measured at fair value unless (a) the exchange transaction lacks commercial substance or (b) the fair value of neither the asset received nor the asset given up is reliably measurable. The acquired item is measured in this way even if an entity cannot immediately derecognise the asset given up. If the acquired item is not measured at fair value, its cost is measured at the carrying amount of the asset given up.

An entity determines whether an exchange transaction has commercial substance by considering the extent to which its future cash flows are expected to change as a result of the transaction. An exchange transaction has commercial substance if:

(a)

the configuration (risk, timing and amount) of the cash flows of the asset received differs from the configuration of the cash flows of the asset transferred; or

(b)

the entity-specific value of the portion of the entity's operations affected by the transaction changes as a result of the exchange; and

(c)

the difference in (a) or (b) is significant relative to the fair value of the assets exchanged.

For the purpose of determining whether an exchange transaction has commercial substance, the entity-specific value of the portion of the entity's operations affected by the transaction shall reflect post-tax cash flows. The result of these analyses may be clear without an entity having to perform detailed calculations.

The fair value of an asset for which comparable market transactions do not exist is reliably measurable if (a) the variability in the range of reasonable fair value estimates is not significant for that asset or (b) the probabilities of the various estimates within the range can be reasonably assessed and used in estimating fair value. If an entity is able to determine reliably the fair value of either the asset received or the asset given up, then the fair value of the asset given up is used to measure the cost of the asset received unless the fair value of the asset received is more clearly evident.

The cost of an item of property, plant and equipment held by a lessee under a finance lease is determined in accordance with IAS 17.

The carrying amount of an item of property, plant and equipment may be reduced by government grants in accordance with IAS 20 Accounting for government grants and disclosure of government assistance .

MEASUREMENT AFTER RECOGNITION

An entity shall choose either the cost model in paragraph 30 or the revaluation model in paragraph 31 as its accounting policy and shall apply that policy to an entire class of property, plant and equipment.

Cost model

After recognition as an asset, an item of property, plant and equipment shall be carried at its cost less any accumulated depreciation and any accumulated impairment losses.

Revaluation model

After recognition as an asset, an item of property, plant and equipment whose fair value can be measured reliably shall be carried at a revalued amount, being its fair value at the date of the revaluation less any subsequent accumulated depreciation and subsequent accumulated impairment losses. Revaluations shall be made with sufficient regularity to ensure that the carrying amount does not differ materially from that which would be determined using fair value at the balance sheet date.

The fair value of land and buildings is usually determined from market-based evidence by appraisal that is normally undertaken by professionally qualified valuers. The fair value of items of plant and equipment is usually their market value determined by appraisal.

If there is no market-based evidence of fair value because of the specialised nature of the item of property, plant and equipment and the item is rarely sold, except as part of a continuing business, an entity may need to estimate fair value using an income or a depreciated replacement cost approach.

The frequency of revaluations depends upon the changes in fair values of the items of property, plant and equipment being revalued. When the fair value of a revalued asset differs materially from its carrying amount, a further revaluation is required. Some items of property, plant and equipment experience significant and volatile changes in fair value, thus necessitating annual revaluation. Such frequent revaluations are unnecessary for items of property, plant and equipment with only insignificant changes in fair value. Instead, it may be necessary to revalue the item only every three or five years.

When an item of property, plant and equipment is revalued, any accumulated depreciation at the date of the revaluation is treated in one of the following ways:

(a)

restated proportionately with the change in the gross carrying amount of the asset so that the carrying amount of the asset after revaluation equals its revalued amount. This method is often used when an asset is revalued by means of applying an index to determine its depreciated replacement cost;

(b)

eliminated against the gross carrying amount of the asset and the net amount restated to the revalued amount of the asset. This method is often used for buildings.

The amount of the adjustment arising on the restatement or elimination of accumulated depreciation forms part of the increase or decrease in carrying amount that is accounted for in accordance with paragraphs 39 and 40.

If an item of property, plant and equipment is revalued, the entire class of property, plant and equipment to which that asset belongs shall be revalued.

A class of property, plant and equipment is a grouping of assets of a similar nature and use in an entity's operations. The following are examples of separate classes:

(a)

land;

(b)

land and buildings;

(c)

machinery;

(d)

ships;

(e)

aircraft;

(f)

motor vehicles;

(g)

furniture and fixtures; and

(h)

office equipment.

The items within a class of property, plant and equipment are revalued simultaneously to avoid selective revaluation of assets and the reporting of amounts in the financial statements that are a mixture of costs and values as at different dates. However, a class of assets may be revalued on a rolling basis provided revaluation of the class of assets is completed within a short period and provided the revaluations are kept up to date.

If an asset's carrying amount is increased as a result of a revaluation, the increase shall be credited directly to equity under the heading of revaluation surplus. However, the increase shall be recognised in profit or loss to the extent that it reverses a revaluation decrease of the same asset previously recognised in profit or loss.

If an asset's carrying amount is decreased as a result of a revaluation, the decrease shall be recognised in profit or loss. However, the decrease shall be debited directly to equity under the heading of revaluation surplus to the extent of any credit balance existing in the revaluation surplus in respect of that asset.

The revaluation surplus included in equity in respect of an item of property, plant and equipment may be transferred directly to retained earnings when the asset is derecognised. This may involve transferring the whole of the surplus when the asset is retired or disposed of. However, some of the surplus may be transferred as the asset is used by an entity. In such a case, the amount of the surplus transferred would be the difference between depreciation based on the revalued carrying amount of the asset and depreciation based on the asset's original cost. Transfers from revaluation surplus to retained earnings are not made through profit or loss.

The effects of taxes on income, if any, resulting from the revaluation of property, plant and equipment are recognised and disclosed in accordance with IAS 12 Income taxes .

Depreciation

Each part of an item of property, plant and equipment with a cost that is significant in relation to the total cost of the item shall be depreciated separately.

An entity allocates the amount initially recognised in respect of an item of property, plant and equipment to its significant parts and depreciates separately each such part. For example, it may be appropriate to depreciate separately the airframe and engines of an aircraft, whether owned or subject to a finance lease.

A significant part of an item of property, plant and equipment may have a useful life and a depreciation method that are the same as the useful life and the depreciation method of another significant part of that same item. Such parts may be grouped in determining the depreciation charge.

To the extent that an entity depreciates separately some parts of an item of property, plant and equipment, it also depreciates separately the remainder of the item. The remainder consists of the parts of the item that are individually not significant. If an entity has varying expectations for these parts, approximation techniques may be necessary to depreciate the remainder in a manner that faithfully represents the consumption pattern and/or useful life of its parts.

An entity may choose to depreciate separately the parts of an item that do not have a cost that is significant in relation to the total cost of the item.

The depreciation charge for each period shall be recognised in profit or loss unless it is included in the carrying amount of another asset.

The depreciation charge for a period is usually recognised in profit or loss. However, sometimes, the future economic benefits embodied in an asset are absorbed in producing other assets. In this case, the depreciation charge constitutes part of the cost of the other asset and is included in its carrying amount. For example, the depreciation of manufacturing plant and equipment is included in the costs of conversion of inventories (see IAS 2). Similarly, depreciation of property, plant and equipment used for development activities may be included in the cost of an intangible asset recognised in accordance with IAS 38 Intangible assets .

Depreciable amount and depreciation period

The depreciable amount of an asset shall be allocated on a systematic basis over its useful life.

The residual value and the useful life of an asset shall be reviewed at least at each financial year-end and, if expectations differ from previous estimates, the change(s) shall be accounted for as a change in an accounting estimate in accordance with IAS 8 Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and errors .

Depreciation is recognised even if the fair value of the asset exceeds its carrying amount, as long as the asset's residual value does not exceed its carrying amount. Repair and maintenance of an asset do not negate the need to depreciate it.

The depreciable amount of an asset is determined after deducting its residual value. In practice, the residual value of an asset is often insignificant and therefore immaterial in the calculation of the depreciable amount.

The residual value of an asset may increase to an amount equal to or greater than the asset's carrying amount. If it does, the asset's depreciation charge is zero unless and until its residual value subsequently decreases to an amount below the asset's carrying amount.

Depreciation of an asset begins when it is available for use, i.e. when it is in the location and condition necessary for it to be capable of operating in the manner intended by management. Depreciation of an asset ceases at the earlier of the date that the asset is classified as held for sale (or included in a disposal group that is classified as held for sale) in accordance with IFRS 5 and the date that the asset is derecognised. Therefore, depreciation does not cease when the asset becomes idle or is retired from active use unless the asset is fully depreciated. However, under usage methods of depreciation the depreciation charge can be zero while there is no production.

The future economic benefits embodied in an asset are consumed by an entity principally through its use. However, other factors, such as technical or commercial obsolescence and wear and tear while an asset remains idle, often result in the diminution of the economic benefits that might have been obtained from the asset. Consequently, all the following factors are considered in determining the useful life of an asset:

(a)

expected usage of the asset. Usage is assessed by reference to the asset's expected capacity or physical output;

(b)

expected physical wear and tear, which depends on operational factors such as the number of shifts for which the asset is to be used and the repair and maintenance programme, and the care and maintenance of the asset while idle;

(c)

technical or commercial obsolescence arising from changes or improvements in production, or from a change in the market demand for the product or service output of the asset;

(d)

legal or similar limits on the use of the asset, such as the expiry dates of related leases.

The useful life of an asset is defined in terms of the asset's expected utility to the entity. The asset management policy of the entity may involve the disposal of assets after a specified time or after consumption of a specified proportion of the future economic benefits embodied in the asset. Therefore, the useful life of an asset may be shorter than its economic life. The estimation of the useful life of the asset is a matter of judgement based on the experience of the entity with similar assets.

Land and buildings are separable assets and are accounted for separately, even when they are acquired together. With some exceptions, such as quarries and sites used for landfill, land has an unlimited useful life and therefore is not depreciated. Buildings have a limited useful life and therefore are depreciable assets. An increase in the value of the land on which a building stands does not affect the determination of the depreciable amount of the building.

If the cost of land includes the costs of site dismantlement, removal and restoration, that portion of the land asset is depreciated over the period of benefits obtained by incurring those costs. In some cases, the land itself may have a limited useful life, in which case it is depreciated in a manner that reflects the benefits to be derived from it.

Depreciation method

The depreciation method used shall reflect the pattern in which the asset's future economic benefits are expected to be consumed by the entity.

The depreciation method applied to an asset shall be reviewed at least at each financial year-end and, if there has been a significant change in the expected pattern of consumption of the future economic benefits embodied in the asset, the method shall be changed to reflect the changed pattern. Such a change shall be accounted for as a change in an accounting estimate in accordance with IAS 8.

A variety of depreciation methods can be used to allocate the depreciable amount of an asset on a systematic basis over its useful life. These methods include the straight-line method, the diminishing balance method and the units of production method. Straight-line depreciation results in a constant charge over the useful life if the asset's residual value does not change. The diminishing balance method results in a decreasing charge over the useful life. The units of production method results in a charge based on the expected use or output. The entity selects the method that most closely reflects the expected pattern of consumption of the future economic benefits embodied in the asset. That method is applied consistently from period to period unless there is a change in the expected pattern of consumption of those future economic benefits.

Impairment

To determine whether an item of property, plant and equipment is impaired, an entity applies IAS 36 Impairment of assets . That standard explains how an entity reviews the carrying amount of its assets, how it determines the recoverable amount of an asset, and when it recognises, or reverses the recognition of, an impairment loss.

[Deleted]

Compensation for impairment

Compensation from third parties for items of property, plant and equipment that were impaired, lost or given up shall be included in profit or loss when the compensation becomes receivable.

Impairments or losses of items of property, plant and equipment, related claims for or payments of compensation from third parties and any subsequent purchase or construction of replacement assets are separate economic events and are accounted for separately as follows:

(a)

impairments of items of property, plant and equipment are recognised in accordance with IAS 36;

(b)

derecognition of items of property, plant and equipment retired or disposed of is determined in accordance with this standard;

(c)

compensation from third parties for items of property, plant and equipment that were impaired, lost or given up is included in determining profit or loss when it becomes receivable; and

(d)

the cost of items of property, plant and equipment restored, purchased or constructed as replacements is determined in accordance with this standard.

DERECOGNITION

The carrying amount of an item of property, plant and equipment shall be derecognised:

(a)

on disposal; or

(b)

when no future economic benefits are expected from its use or disposal.

The gain or loss arising from the derecognition of an item of property, plant and equipment shall be included in profit or loss when the item is derecognised (unless IAS 17 requires otherwise on a sale and leaseback). Gains shall not be classified as revenue.

The disposal of an item of property, plant and equipment may occur in a variety of ways (e.g. by sale, by entering into a finance lease or by donation). In determining the date of disposal of an item, an entity applies the criteria in IAS 18 Revenue for recognising revenue from the sale of goods. IAS 17 applies to disposal by a sale and leaseback.

If, under the recognition principle in paragraph 7, an entity recognises in the carrying amount of an item of property, plant and equipment the cost of a replacement for part of the item, then it derecognises the carrying amount of the replaced part regardless of whether the replaced part had been depreciated separately. If it is not practicable for an entity to determine the carrying amount of the replaced part, it may use the cost of the replacement as an indication of what the cost of the replaced part was at the time it was acquired or constructed.

The gain or loss arising from the derecognition of an item of property, plant and equipment shall be determined as the difference between the net disposal proceeds, if any, and the carrying amount of the item.

The consideration receivable on disposal of an item of property, plant and equipment is recognised initially at its fair value. If payment for the item is deferred, the consideration received is recognised initially at the cash price equivalent. The difference between the nominal amount of the consideration and the cash price equivalent is recognised as interest revenue in accordance with IAS 18 reflecting the effective yield on the receivable.

DISCLOSURE

The financial statements shall disclose, for each class of property, plant and equipment:

(a)

the measurement bases used for determining the gross carrying amount;

(b)

the depreciation methods used;

(c)

the useful lives or the depreciation rates used;

(d)

the gross carrying amount and the accumulated depreciation (aggregated with accumulated impairment losses) at the beginning and end of the period; and

(e)

a reconciliation of the carrying amount at the beginning and end of the period showing:

(i)

additions;

(ii)

assets classified as held for sale or included in a disposal group classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5 and other disposals;

(iii)

acquisitions through business combinations;

(iv)

increases or decreases resulting from revaluations under paragraphs 31, 39 and 40 and from impairment losses recognised or reversed directly in equity in accordance with IAS 36;

(v)

impairment losses recognised in profit or loss in accordance with IAS 36;

(vi)

impairment losses reversed in profit or loss in accordance with IAS 36;

(vii)

depreciation;

(viii)

the net exchange differences arising on the translation of the financial statements from the functional currency into a different presentation currency, including the translation of a foreign operation into the presentation currency of the reporting entity; and

(ix)

other changes.

The financial statements shall also disclose:

(a)

the existence and amounts of restrictions on title, and property, plant and equipment pledged as security for liabilities;

(b)

the amount of expenditures recognised in the carrying amount of an item of property, plant and equipment in the course of its construction;

(c)

the amount of contractual commitments for the acquisition of property, plant and equipment; and

(d)

if it is not disclosed separately on the face of the income statement, the amount of compensation from third parties for items of property, plant and equipment that were impaired, lost or given up that is included in profit or loss.

Selection of the depreciation method and estimation of the useful life of assets are matters of judgement. Therefore, disclosure of the methods adopted and the estimated useful lives or depreciation rates provides users of financial statements with information that allows them to review the policies selected by management and enables comparisons to be made with other entities. For similar reasons, it is necessary to disclose:

(a)

depreciation, whether recognised in profit or loss or as a part of the cost of other assets, during a period; and

(b)

accumulated depreciation at the end of the period.

In accordance with IAS 8 an entity discloses the nature and effect of a change in an accounting estimate that has an effect in the current period or is expected to have an effect in subsequent periods. For property, plant and equipment, such disclosure may arise from changes in estimates with respect to:

(a)

residual values;

(b)

the estimated costs of dismantling, removing or restoring items of property, plant and equipment;

(c)

useful lives; and

(d)

depreciation methods.

If items of property, plant and equipment are stated at revalued amounts, the following shall be disclosed:

(a)

the effective date of the revaluation;

(b)

whether an independent valuer was involved;

(c)

the methods and significant assumptions applied in estimating the items' fair values;

(d)

the extent to which the items' fair values were determined directly by reference to observable prices in an active market or recent market transactions on arm's length terms or were estimated using other valuation techniques;

(e)

for each revalued class of property, plant and equipment, the carrying amount that would have been recognised had the assets been carried under the cost model; and

(f)

the revaluation surplus, indicating the change for the period and any restrictions on the distribution of the balance to shareholders.

In accordance with IAS 36 an entity discloses information on impaired property, plant and equipment in addition to the information required by paragraph 73(e)(iv)-(vi).

Users of financial statements may also find the following information relevant to their needs:

(a)

the carrying amount of temporarily idle property, plant and equipment;

(b)

the gross carrying amount of any fully depreciated property, plant and equipment that is still in use;

(c)

the carrying amount of property, plant and equipment retired from active use and not classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5; and

(d)

when the cost model is used, the fair value of property, plant and equipment when this is materially different from the carrying amount.

Therefore, entities are encouraged to disclose these amounts.

TRANSITIONAL PROVISIONS

The requirements of paragraphs 24-26 regarding the initial measurement of an item of property, plant and equipment acquired in an exchange of assets transaction shall be applied prospectively only to future transactions.

EFFECTIVE DATE

81A

An entity shall apply the amendments in paragraph 3 for annual periods beginning on or after 1 January 2006. If an entity applies IFRS 6 for an earlier period, those amendments shall be applied for that earlier period.

WITHDRAWAL OF OTHER PRONOUNCEMENTS

This standard supersedes IAS 16 Property, plant and equipment (revised in 1998).

This standard supersedes the following interpretations:

(a)

SIC-6 Costs of modifying existing software ;

(b)

SIC-14 Property, plant and equipment — compensation for the impairment or loss of items ; and

(c)

SIC-23 Property, plant and equipment — major inspection or overhaul costs .

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 17

Leases

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this standard is to prescribe, for lessees and lessors, the appropriate accounting policies and disclosure to apply in relation to leases.

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied in accounting for all leases other than:

(a)

leases to explore for or use minerals, oil, natural gas and similar non-regenerative resources; and

(b)

licensing agreements for such items as motion picture films, video recordings, plays, manuscripts, patents and copyrights.

However, this standard shall not be applied as the basis of measurement for:

(a)

property held by lessees that is accounted for as investment property (see IAS 40 Investment property );

(b)

investment property provided by lessors under operating leases (see IAS 40);

(c)

biological assets held by lessees under finance leases (see IAS 41 Agriculture ); or

(d)

biological assets provided by lessors under operating leases (see IAS 41).

This standard applies to agreements that transfer the right to use assets even though substantial services by the lessor may be called for in connection with the operation or maintenance of such assets. This standard does not apply to agreements that are contracts for services that do not transfer the right to use assets from one contracting party to the other.

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

A lease is an agreement whereby the lessor conveys to the lessee in return for a payment or series of payments the right to use an asset for an agreed period of time.

A finance lease is a lease that transfers substantially all the risks and rewards incidental to ownership of an asset. Title may or may not eventually be transferred.

An operating lease is a lease other than a finance lease.

A non-cancellable lease is a lease that is cancellable only:

(a)

upon the occurrence of some remote contingency;

(b)

with the permission of the lessor;

(c)

if the lessee enters into a new lease for the same or an equivalent asset with the same lessor; or

(d)

upon payment by the lessee of such an additional amount that, at inception of the lease, continuation of the lease is reasonably certain.

The inception of the lease is the earlier of the date of the lease agreement and the date of commitment by the parties to the principal provisions of the lease. As at this date:

(a)

a lease is classified as either an operating or a finance lease; and

(b)

in the case of a finance lease, the amounts to be recognised at the commencement of the lease term are determined.

The commencement of the lease term is the date from which the lessee is entitled to exercise its right to use the leased asset. It is the date of initial recognition of the lease (i.e. the recognition of the assets, liabilities, income or expenses resulting from the lease, as appropriate).

The lease term is the non-cancellable period for which the lessee has contracted to lease the asset together with any further terms for which the lessee has the option to continue to lease the asset, with or without further payment, when at the inception of the lease it is reasonably certain that the lessee will exercise the option.

Minimum lease payments are the payments over the lease term that the lessee is or can be required to make, excluding contingent rent, costs for services and taxes to be paid by and reimbursed to the lessor, together with:

(a)

for a lessee, any amounts guaranteed by the lessee or by a party related to the lessee; or

(b)

for a lessor, any residual value guaranteed to the lessor by:

(i)

the lessee;

(ii)

a party related to the lessee; or

(iii)

a third party unrelated to the lessor that is financially capable of discharging the obligations under the guarantee.

However, if the lessee has an option to purchase the asset at a price that is expected to be sufficiently lower than fair value at the date the option becomes exercisable for it to be reasonably certain, at the inception of the lease, that the option will be exercised, the minimum lease payments comprise the minimum payments payable over the lease term to the expected date of exercise of this purchase option and the payment required to exercise it.

Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, or a liability settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm's length transaction.

Economic life is either:

(a)

the period over which an asset is expected to be economically usable by one or more users; or

(b)

the number of production or similar units expected to be obtained from the asset by one or more users.

Useful life is the estimated remaining period, from the commencement of the lease term, without limitation by the lease term, over which the economic benefits embodied in the asset are expected to be consumed by the entity.

Guaranteed residual value is:

(a)

for a lessee, that part of the residual value that is guaranteed by the lessee or by a party related to the lessee (the amount of the guarantee being the maximum amount that could, in any event, become payable); and

(b)

for a lessor, that part of the residual value that is guaranteed by the lessee or by a third party unrelated to the lessor that is financially capable of discharging the obligations under the guarantee.

Unguaranteed residual value is that portion of the residual value of the leased asset, the realisation of which by the lessor is not assured or is guaranteed solely by a party related to the lessor.

Initial direct costs are incremental costs that are directly attributable to negotiating and arranging a lease, except for such costs incurred by manufacturer or dealer lessors.

Gross investment in the lease is the aggregate of:

(a)

the minimum lease payments receivable by the lessor under a finance lease; and

(b)

any unguaranteed residual value accruing to the lessor.

Net investment in the lease is the gross investment in the lease discounted at the interest rate implicit in the lease.

Unearned finance income is the difference between:

(a)

the gross investment in the lease; and

(b)

the net investment in the lease.

The interest rate implicit in the lease is the discount rate that, at the inception of the lease, causes the aggregate present value of (a) the minimum lease payments and (b) the unguaranteed residual value to be equal to the sum of (i) the fair value of the leased asset and (ii) any initial direct costs of the lessor.

The lessee's incremental borrowing rate of interest is the rate of interest the lessee would have to pay on a similar lease or, if that is not determinable, the rate that, at the inception of the lease, the lessee would incur to borrow over a similar term, and with a similar security, the funds necessary to purchase the asset.

Contingent rent is that portion of the lease payments that is not fixed in amount but is based on the future amount of a factor that changes other than with the passage of time (e.g. percentage of future sales, amount of future use, future price indices, future market rates of interest).

A lease agreement or commitment may include a provision to adjust the lease payments for changes in the construction or acquisition cost of the leased property or for changes in some other measure of cost or value, such as general price levels, or in the lessor's costs of financing the lease, during the period between the inception of the lease and the commencement of the lease term. If so, the effect of any such changes shall be deemed to have taken place at the inception of the lease for the purposes of this standard.

The definition of a lease includes contracts for the hire of an asset that contain a provision giving the hirer an option to acquire title to the asset upon the fulfilment of agreed conditions. These contracts are sometimes known as hire purchase contracts.

CLASSIFICATION OF LEASES

The classification of leases adopted in this standard is based on the extent to which risks and rewards incidental to ownership of a leased asset lie with the lessor or the lessee. Risks include the possibilities of losses from idle capacity or technological obsolescence and of variations in return because of changing economic conditions. Rewards may be represented by the expectation of profitable operation over the asset's economic life and of gain from appreciation in value or realisation of a residual value.

A lease is classified as a finance lease if it transfers substantially all the risks and rewards incidental to ownership. A lease is classified as an operating lease if it does not transfer substantially all the risks and rewards incidental to ownership.

Because the transaction between a lessor and a lessee is based on a lease agreement between them, it is appropriate to use consistent definitions. The application of these definitions to the differing circumstances of the lessor and lessee may result in the same lease being classified differently by them. For example, this may be the case if the lessor benefits from a residual value guarantee provided by a party unrelated to the lessee.

Whether a lease is a finance lease or an operating lease depends on the substance of the transaction rather than the form of the contract ( 1 ) . Examples of situations that individually or in combination would normally lead to a lease being classified as a finance lease are:

(a)

the lease transfers ownership of the asset to the lessee by the end of the lease term;

(b)

the lessee has the option to purchase the asset at a price that is expected to be sufficiently lower than the fair value at the date the option becomes exercisable for it to be reasonably certain, at the inception of the lease, that the option will be exercised;

(c)

the lease term is for the major part of the economic life of the asset even if title is not transferred;

(d)

at the inception of the lease the present value of the minimum lease payments amounts to at least substantially all of the fair value of the leased asset; and

(e)

the leased assets are of such a specialised nature that only the lessee can use them without major modifications.

Indicators of situations that individually or in combination could also lead to a lease being classified as a finance lease are:

(a)

if the lessee can cancel the lease, the lessor's losses associated with the cancellation are borne by the lessee;

(b)

gains or losses from the fluctuation in the fair value of the residual accrue to the lessee (for example, in the form of a rent rebate equalling most of the sales proceeds at the end of the lease); and

(c)

the lessee has the ability to continue the lease for a secondary period at a rent that is substantially lower than market rent.

The examples and indicators in paragraphs 10 and 11 are not always conclusive. If it is clear from other features that the lease does not transfer substantially all risks and rewards incidental to ownership, the lease is classified as an operating lease. For example, this may be the case if ownership of the asset transfers at the end of the lease for a variable payment equal to its then fair value, or if there are contingent rents, as a result of which the lessee does not have substantially all such risks and rewards.

Lease classification is made at the inception of the lease. If at any time the lessee and the lessor agree to change the provisions of the lease, other than by renewing the lease, in a manner that would have resulted in a different classification of the lease under the criteria in paragraphs 7-12 if the changed terms had been in effect at the inception of the lease, the revised agreement is regarded as a new agreement over its term. However, changes in estimates (for example, changes in estimates of the economic life or of the residual value of the leased property), or changes in circumstances (for example, default by the lessee), do not give rise to a new classification of a lease for accounting purposes.

Leases of land and of buildings are classified as operating or finance leases in the same way as leases of other assets. However, a characteristic of land is that it normally has an indefinite economic life and, if title is not expected to pass to the lessee by the end of the lease term, the lessee normally does not receive substantially all of the risks and rewards incidental to ownership, in which case the lease of land will be an operating lease. A payment made on entering into or acquiring a leasehold that is accounted for as an operating lease represents prepaid lease payments that are amortised over the lease term in accordance with the pattern of benefits provided.

The land and buildings elements of a lease of land and buildings are considered separately for the purposes of lease classification. If title to both elements is expected to pass to the lessee by the end of the lease term, both elements are classified as a finance lease, whether analysed as one lease or as two leases, unless it is clear from other features that the lease does not transfer substantially all risks and rewards incidental to ownership of one or both elements. When the land has an indefinite economic life, the land element is normally classified as an operating lease unless title is expected to pass to the lessee by the end of the lease term, in accordance with paragraph 14. The buildings element is classified as a finance or operating lease in accordance with paragraphs 7-13.

Whenever necessary in order to classify and account for a lease of land and buildings, the minimum lease payments (including any lump-sum upfront payments) are allocated between the land and the buildings elements in proportion to the relative fair values of the leasehold interests in the land element and buildings element of the lease at the inception of the lease. If the lease payments cannot be allocated reliably between these two elements, the entire lease is classified as a finance lease, unless it is clear that both elements are operating leases, in which case the entire lease is classified as an operating lease.

For a lease of land and buildings in which the amount that would initially be recognised for the land element, in accordance with paragraph 20, is immaterial, the land and buildings may be treated as a single unit for the purpose of lease classification and classified as a finance or operating lease in accordance with paragraphs 7-13. In such a case, the economic life of the buildings is regarded as the economic life of the entire leased asset.

Separate measurement of the land and buildings elements is not required when the lessee's interest in both land and buildings is classified as an investment property in accordance with IAS 40 and the fair value model is adopted. Detailed calculations are required for this assessment only if the classification of one or both elements is otherwise uncertain.

In accordance with IAS 40, it is possible for a lessee to classify a property interest held under an operating lease as an investment property. If it does, the property interest is accounted for as if it were a finance lease and, in addition, the fair value model is used for the asset recognised. The lessee shall continue to account for the lease as a finance lease, even if a subsequent event changes the nature of the lessee's property interest so that it is no longer classified as investment property. This will be the case if, for example, the lessee:

(a)

occupies the property, which is then transferred to owner-occupied property at a deemed cost equal to its fair value at the date of change in use; or

(b)

grants a sublease that transfers substantially all of the risks and rewards incidental to ownership of the interest to an unrelated third party. Such a sublease is accounted for by the lessee as a finance lease to the third party, although it may be accounted for as an operating lease by the third party.

LEASES IN THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS OF LESSEES

Finance leases

Initial recognition

At the commencement of the lease term, lessees shall recognise finance leases as assets and liabilities in their balance sheets at amounts equal to the fair value of the leased property or, if lower, the present value of the minimum lease payments, each determined at the inception of the lease. The discount rate to be used in calculating the present value of the minimum lease payments is the interest rate implicit in the lease, if this is practicable to determine; if not, the lessee's incremental borrowing rate shall be used. Any initial direct costs of the lessee are added to the amount recognised as an asset.

Transactions and other events are accounted for and presented in accordance with their substance and financial reality and not merely with legal form. Although the legal form of a lease agreement is that the lessee may acquire no legal title to the leased asset, in the case of finance leases the substance and financial reality are that the lessee acquires the economic benefits of the use of the leased asset for the major part of its economic life in return for entering into an obligation to pay for that right an amount approximating, at the inception of the lease, the fair value of the asset and the related finance charge.

If such lease transactions are not reflected in the lessee's balance sheet, the economic resources and the level of obligations of an entity are understated, thereby distorting financial ratios. Therefore, it is appropriate for a finance lease to be recognised in the lessee's balance sheet both as an asset and as an obligation to pay future lease payments. At the commencement of the lease term, the asset and the liability for the future lease payments are recognised in the balance sheet at the same amounts except for any initial direct costs of the lessee that are added to the amount recognised as an asset.

It is not appropriate for the liabilities for leased assets to be presented in the financial statements as a deduction from the leased assets. If for the presentation of liabilities on the face of the balance sheet a distinction is made between current and non-current liabilities, the same distinction is made for lease liabilities.

Initial direct costs are often incurred in connection with specific leasing activities, such as negotiating and securing leasing arrangements. The costs identified as directly attributable to activities performed by the lessee for a finance lease are added to the amount recognised as an asset.

Subsequent measurement

Minimum lease payments shall be apportioned between the finance charge and the reduction of the outstanding liability. The finance charge shall be allocated to each period during the lease term so as to produce a constant periodic rate of interest on the remaining balance of the liability. Contingent rents shall be charged as expenses in the periods in which they are incurred.

In practice, in allocating the finance charge to periods during the lease term, a lessee may use some form of approximation to simplify the calculation.

A finance lease gives rise to depreciation expense for depreciable assets as well as finance expense for each accounting period. The depreciation policy for depreciable leased assets shall be consistent with that for depreciable assets that are owned, and the depreciation recognised shall be calculated in accordance with IAS 16 Property, plant and equipment and IAS 38 Intangible assets . If there is no reasonable certainty that the lessee will obtain ownership by the end of the lease term, the asset shall be fully depreciated over the shorter of the lease term and its useful life.

The depreciable amount of a leased asset is allocated to each accounting period during the period of expected use on a systematic basis consistent with the depreciation policy the lessee adopts for depreciable assets that are owned. If there is reasonable certainty that the lessee will obtain ownership by the end of the lease term, the period of expected use is the useful life of the asset; otherwise the asset is depreciated over the shorter of the lease term and its useful life.

The sum of the depreciation expense for the asset and the finance expense for the period is rarely the same as the lease payments payable for the period, and it is, therefore, inappropriate simply to recognise the lease payments payable as an expense. Accordingly, the asset and the related liability are unlikely to be equal in amount after the commencement of the lease term.

To determine whether a leased asset has become impaired, an entity applies IAS 36 Impairment of assets .

Lessees shall, in addition to meeting the requirements of IFRS 7 Financial instruments: disclosures , make the following disclosures for finance leases:

(a)

for each class of asset, the net carrying amount at the balance sheet date;

(b)

a reconciliation between the total of future minimum lease payments at the balance sheet date, and their present value. In addition, an entity shall disclose the total of future minimum lease payments at the balance sheet date, and their present value, for each of the following periods:

(i)

not later than one year;

(ii)

later than one year and not later than five years;

(iii)

later than five years;

(c)

contingent rents recognised as an expense in the period;

(d)

the total of future minimum sublease payments expected to be received under non-cancellable subleases at the balance sheet date;

(e)

a general description of the lessee's material leasing arrangements, including, but not limited to, the following:

(i)

the basis on which contingent rent payable is determined;

(ii)

the existence and terms of renewal or purchase options and escalation clauses; and

(iii)

restrictions imposed by lease arrangements, such as those concerning dividends, additional debt, and further leasing.

In addition, the requirements for disclosure in accordance with IAS 16, IAS 36, IAS 38, IAS 40 and IAS 41 apply to lessees for assets leased under finance leases.

Operating leases

Lease payments under an operating lease shall be recognised as an expense on a straight-line basis over the lease term unless another systematic basis is more representative of the time pattern of the user's benefit ( 2 ) .

For operating leases, lease payments (excluding costs for services such as insurance and maintenance) are recognised as an expense on a straight-line basis unless another systematic basis is representative of the time pattern of the user's benefit, even if the payments are not on that basis.

Lessees shall, in addition to meeting the requirements of IFRS 7, make the following disclosures for operating leases:

(a)

the total of future minimum lease payments under non-cancellable operating leases for each of the following periods:

(i)

not later than one year;

(ii)

later than one year and not later than five years;

(iii)

later than five years;

(b)

the total of future minimum sublease payments expected to be received under non-cancellable subleases at the balance sheet date;

(c)

lease and sublease payments recognised as an expense in the period, with separate amounts for minimum lease payments, contingent rents, and sublease payments;

(d)

a general description of the lessee's significant leasing arrangements, including, but not limited to, the following:

(i)

the basis on which contingent rent payable is determined;

(ii)

the existence and terms of renewal or purchase options and escalation clauses; and

(iii)

restrictions imposed by lease arrangements, such as those concerning dividends, additional debt and further leasing.

LEASES IN THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS OF LESSORS

Finance leases

Initial recognition

Lessors shall recognise assets held under a finance lease in their balance sheets and present them as a receivable at an amount equal to the net investment in the lease.

Under a finance lease substantially all the risks and rewards incidental to legal ownership are transferred by the lessor, and thus the lease payment receivable is treated by the lessor as repayment of principal and finance income to reimburse and reward the lessor for its investment and services.

Initial direct costs are often incurred by lessors and include amounts such as commissions, legal fees and internal costs that are incremental and directly attributable to negotiating and arranging a lease. They exclude general overheads such as those incurred by a sales and marketing team. For finance leases other than those involving manufacturer or dealer lessors, initial direct costs are included in the initial measurement of the finance lease receivable and reduce the amount of income recognised over the lease term. The interest rate implicit in the lease is defined in such a way that the initial direct costs are included automatically in the finance lease receivable; there is no need to add them separately. Costs incurred by manufacturer or dealer lessors in connection with negotiating and arranging a lease are excluded from the definition of initial direct costs. As a result, they are excluded from the net investment in the lease and are recognised as an expense when the selling profit is recognised, which for a finance lease is normally at the commencement of the lease term.

Subsequent measurement

The recognition of finance income shall be based on a pattern reflecting a constant periodic rate of return on the lessor's net investment in the finance lease.

A lessor aims to allocate finance income over the lease term on a systematic and rational basis. This income allocation is based on a pattern reflecting a constant periodic return on the lessor's net investment in the finance lease. Lease payments relating to the period, excluding costs for services, are applied against the gross investment in the lease to reduce both the principal and the unearned finance income.

Estimated unguaranteed residual values used in computing the lessor's gross investment in the lease are reviewed regularly. If there has been a reduction in the estimated unguaranteed residual value, the income allocation over the lease term is revised and any reduction in respect of amounts accrued is recognised immediately.

41A

An asset under a finance lease that is classified as held for sale (or included in a disposal group that is classified as held for sale) in accordance with IFRS 5 Non-current assets held for sale and discontinued operations shall be accounted for in accordance with that IFRS.

Manufacturer or dealer lessors shall recognise selling profit or loss in the period, in accordance with the policy followed by the entity for outright sales. If artificially low rates of interest are quoted, selling profit shall be restricted to that which would apply if a market rate of interest were charged. Costs incurred by manufacturer or dealer lessors in connection with negotiating and arranging a lease shall be recognised as an expense when the selling profit is recognised.

Manufacturers or dealers often offer to customers the choice of either buying or leasing an asset. A finance lease of an asset by a manufacturer or dealer lessor gives rise to two types of income:

(a)

profit or loss equivalent to the profit or loss resulting from an outright sale of the asset being leased, at normal selling prices, reflecting any applicable volume or trade discounts; and

(b)

finance income over the lease term.

The sales revenue recognised at the commencement of the lease term by a manufacturer or dealer lessor is the fair value of the asset, or, if lower, the present value of the minimum lease payments accruing to the lessor, computed at a market rate of interest. The cost of sale recognised at the commencement of the lease term is the cost, or carrying amount if different, of the leased property less the present value of the unguaranteed residual value. The difference between the sales revenue and the cost of sale is the selling profit, which is recognised in accordance with the entity's policy for outright sales.

Manufacturer or dealer lessors sometimes quote artificially low rates of interest in order to attract customers. The use of such a rate would result in an excessive portion of the total income from the transaction being recognised at the time of sale. If artificially low rates of interest are quoted, selling profit is restricted to that which would apply if a market rate of interest were charged.

Costs incurred by a manufacturer or dealer lessor in connection with negotiating and arranging a finance lease are recognised as an expense at the commencement of the lease term because they are mainly related to earning the manufacturer's or dealer's selling profit.

Lessors shall, in addition to meeting the requirements in IFRS 7, disclose the following for finance leases:

(a)

a reconciliation between the gross investment in the lease at the balance sheet date, and the present value of minimum lease payments receivable at the balance sheet date. In addition, an entity shall disclose the gross investment in the lease and the present value of minimum lease payments receivable at the balance sheet date, for each of the following periods:

(i)

not later than one year;

(ii)

later than one year and not later than five years;

(iii)

later than five years;

(b)

unearned finance income;

(c)

the unguaranteed residual values accruing to the benefit of the lessor;

(d)

the accumulated allowance for uncollectible minimum lease payments receivable;

(e)

contingent rents recognised as income in the period;

(f)

a general description of the lessor's material leasing arrangements.

As an indicator of growth it is often useful also to disclose the gross investment less unearned income in new business added during the period, after deducting the relevant amounts for cancelled leases.

Operating leases

Lessors shall present assets subject to operating leases in their balance sheets according to the nature of the asset.

Lease income from operating leases shall be recognised in income on a straight-line basis over the lease term, unless another systematic basis is more representative of the time pattern in which use benefit derived from the leased asset is diminished ( 3 ) .

Costs, including depreciation, incurred in earning the lease income are recognised as an expense. Lease income (excluding receipts for services provided such as insurance and maintenance) is recognised on a straight-line basis over the lease term even if the receipts are not on such a basis, unless another systematic basis is more representative of the time pattern in which use benefit derived from the leased asset is diminished.

Initial direct costs incurred by lessors in negotiating and arranging an operating lease shall be added to the carrying amount of the leased asset and recognised as an expense over the lease term on the same basis as the lease income.

The depreciation policy for depreciable leased assets shall be consistent with the lessor's normal depreciation policy for similar assets, and depreciation shall be calculated in accordance with IAS 16 and IAS 38.

To determine whether a leased asset has become impaired, an entity applies IAS 36.

A manufacturer or dealer lessor does not recognise any selling profit on entering into an operating lease because it is not the equivalent of a sale.

Lessors shall, in addition to meeting the requirements of IFRS 7, disclose the following for operating leases:

(a)

the future minimum lease payments under non-cancellable operating leases in the aggregate and for each of the following periods:

(i)

not later than one year;

(ii)

later than one year and not later than five years;

(iii)

later than five years;

(b)

total contingent rents recognised as income in the period;

(c)

a general description of the lessor's leasing arrangements.

In addition, the disclosure requirements in IAS 16, IAS 36, IAS 38, IAS 40 and IAS 41 apply to lessors for assets provided under operating leases.

SALE AND LEASEBACK TRANSACTIONS

A sale and leaseback transaction involves the sale of an asset and the leasing back of the same asset. The lease payment and the sale price are usually interdependent because they are negotiated as a package. The accounting treatment of a sale and leaseback transaction depends upon the type of lease involved.

If a sale and leaseback transaction results in a finance lease, any excess of sales proceeds over the carrying amount shall not be immediately recognised as income by a seller-lessee. Instead, it shall be deferred and amortised over the lease term.

If the leaseback is a finance lease, the transaction is a means whereby the lessor provides finance to the lessee, with the asset as security. For this reason it is not appropriate to regard an excess of sales proceeds over the carrying amount as income. Such excess is deferred and amortised over the lease term.

If a sale and leaseback transaction results in an operating lease, and it is clear that the transaction is established at fair value, any profit or loss shall be recognised immediately. If the sale price is below fair value, any profit or loss shall be recognised immediately except that, if the loss is compensated for by future lease payments at below market price, it shall be deferred and amortised in proportion to the lease payments over the period for which the asset is expected to be used. If the sale price is above fair value, the excess over fair value shall be deferred and amortised over the period for which the asset is expected to be used.

If the leaseback is an operating lease, and the lease payments and the sale price are at fair value, there has in effect been a normal sale transaction and any profit or loss is recognised immediately.

For operating leases, if the fair value at the time of a sale and leaseback transaction is less than the carrying amount of the asset, a loss equal to the amount of the difference between the carrying amount and fair value shall be recognised immediately.

For finance leases, no such adjustment is necessary unless there has been an impairment in value, in which case the carrying amount is reduced to recoverable amount in accordance with IAS 36.

Disclosure requirements for lessees and lessors apply equally to sale and leaseback transactions. The required description of material leasing arrangements leads to disclosure of unique or unusual provisions of the agreement or terms of the sale and leaseback transactions.

Sale and leaseback transactions may trigger the separate disclosure criteria in IAS 1 Presentation of financial statements .

TRANSITIONAL PROVISIONS

Subject to paragraph 68, retrospective application of this standard is encouraged but not required. If the standard is not applied retrospectively, the balance of any pre-existing finance lease is deemed to have been properly determined by the lessor and shall be accounted for thereafter in accordance with the provisions of this standard.

An entity that has previously applied IAS 17 (revised 1997) shall apply the amendments made by this standard retrospectively for all leases or, if IAS 17 (revised 1997) was not applied retrospectively, for all leases entered into since it first applied that standard.

EFFECTIVE DATE

WITHDRAWAL OF IAS 17 (REVISED 1997)

This standard supersedes IAS 17 Leases (revised in 1997).

( 1 ) See also SIC-27 Evaluating the substance of transactions involving the legal form of a lease .

( 2 ) See also SIC-15 Operating leases — incentives .

( 3 ) See also SIC-15 Operating leases — incentives .

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 18

Revenue

OBJECTIVE

Income is defined in the Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements as increases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the form of inflows or enhancements of assets or decreases of liabilities that result in increases in equity, other than those relating to contributions from equity participants. Income encompasses both revenue and gains. Revenue is income that arises in the course of ordinary activities of an entity and is referred to by a variety of different names, including sales, fees, interest, dividends and royalties. The objective of this standard is to prescribe the accounting treatment of revenue arising from certain types of transactions and events.

The primary issue in accounting for revenue is determining when to recognise revenue. Revenue is recognised when it is probable that future economic benefits will flow to the entity and these benefits can be measured reliably. This standard identifies the circumstances in which these criteria will be met and, therefore, revenue will be recognised. It also provides practical guidance on the application of these criteria.

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied in accounting for revenue arising from the following transactions and events:

(a)

the sale of goods;

(b)

the rendering of services; and

(c)

the use by others of entity assets yielding interest, royalties and dividends.

This standard supersedes IAS 18 Revenue recognition approved in 1982.

Goods includes goods produced by the entity for the purpose of sale and goods purchased for resale, such as merchandise purchased by a retailer or land and other property held for resale.

The rendering of services typically involves the performance by the entity of a contractually agreed task over an agreed period of time. The services may be rendered within a single period or over more than one period. Some contracts for the rendering of services are directly related to construction contracts, for example, those for the services of project managers and architects. Revenue arising from these contracts is not dealt with in this standard but is dealt with in accordance with the requirements for construction contracts as specified in IAS 11 Construction contracts .

The use by others of entity assets gives rise to revenue in the form of:

(a)

interest — charges for the use of cash or cash equivalents or amounts due to the entity;

(b)

royalties — charges for the use of long-term assets of the entity, for example, patents, trademarks, copyrights and computer software; and

(c)

dividends — distributions of profits to holders of equity investments in proportion to their holdings of a particular class of capital.

This standard does not deal with revenue arising from:

(a)

lease agreements (see IAS 17 Leases );

(b)

dividends arising from investments which are accounted for under the equity method (see IAS 28 Investments in associates );

(c)

insurance contracts within the scope of IFRS 4 Insurance contracts ;

(d)

changes in the fair value of financial assets and financial liabilities or their disposal (see IAS 39 Financial instruments: recognition and measurement );

(e)

changes in the value of other current assets;

(f)

initial recognition and from changes in the fair value of biological assets related to agricultural activity (see IAS 41 Agriculture );

(g)

initial recognition of agricultural produce (see IAS 41); and

(h)

the extraction of mineral ores.

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

Revenue is the gross inflow of economic benefits during the period arising in the course of the ordinary activities of an entity when those inflows result in increases in equity, other than increases relating to contributions from equity participants.

Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, or a liability settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm's length transaction.

Revenue includes only the gross inflows of economic benefits received and receivable by the entity on its own account. Amounts collected on behalf of third parties such as sales taxes, goods and services taxes and value added taxes are not economic benefits which flow to the entity and do not result in increases in equity. Therefore, they are excluded from revenue. Similarly, in an agency relationship, the gross inflows of economic benefits include amounts collected on behalf of the principal and which do not result in increases in equity for the entity. The amounts collected on behalf of the principal are not revenue. Instead, revenue is the amount of commission.

MEASUREMENT OF REVENUE

Revenue shall be measured at the fair value of the consideration received or receivable ( 1 ) .

The amount of revenue arising on a transaction is usually determined by agreement between the entity and the buyer or user of the asset. It is measured at the fair value of the consideration received or receivable taking into account the amount of any trade discounts and volume rebates allowed by the entity.

In most cases, the consideration is in the form of cash or cash equivalents and the amount of revenue is the amount of cash or cash equivalents received or receivable. However, when the inflow of cash or cash equivalents is deferred, the fair value of the consideration may be less than the nominal amount of cash received or receivable. For example, an entity may provide interest free credit to the buyer or accept a note receivable bearing a below-market interest rate from the buyer as consideration for the sale of goods. When the arrangement effectively constitutes a financing transaction, the fair value of the consideration is determined by discounting all future receipts using an imputed rate of interest. The imputed rate of interest is the more clearly determinable of either:

(a)

the prevailing rate for a similar instrument of an issuer with a similar credit rating; or

(b)

a rate of interest that discounts the nominal amount of the instrument to the current cash sales price of the goods or services.

The difference between the fair value and the nominal amount of the consideration is recognised as interest revenue in accordance with paragraphs 29 and 30 and in accordance with IAS 39.

When goods or services are exchanged or swapped for goods or services which are of a similar nature and value, the exchange is not regarded as a transaction which generates revenue. This is often the case with commodities like oil or milk where suppliers exchange or swap inventories in various locations to fulfil demand on a timely basis in a particular location. When goods are sold or services are rendered in exchange for dissimilar goods or services, the exchange is regarded as a transaction which generates revenue. The revenue is measured at the fair value of the goods or services received, adjusted by the amount of any cash or cash equivalents transferred. When the fair value of the goods or services received cannot be measured reliably, the revenue is measured at the fair value of the goods or services given up, adjusted by the amount of any cash or cash equivalents transferred.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE TRANSACTION

The recognition criteria in this standard are usually applied separately to each transaction. However, in certain circumstances, it is necessary to apply the recognition criteria to the separately identifiable components of a single transaction in order to reflect the substance of the transaction. For example, when the selling price of a product includes an identifiable amount for subsequent servicing, that amount is deferred and recognised as revenue over the period during which the service is performed. Conversely, the recognition criteria are applied to two or more transactions together when they are linked in such a way that the commercial effect cannot be understood without reference to the series of transactions as a whole. For example, an entity may sell goods and, at the same time, enter into a separate agreement to repurchase the goods at a later date, thus negating the substantive effect of the transaction; in such a case, the two transactions are dealt with together.

SALE OF GOODS

Revenue from the sale of goods shall be recognised when all the following conditions have been satisfied:

(a)

the entity has transferred to the buyer the significant risks and rewards of ownership of the goods;

(b)

the entity retains neither continuing managerial involvement to the degree usually associated with ownership nor effective control over the goods sold;

(c)

the amount of revenue can be measured reliably;

(d)

it is probable that the economic benefits associated with the transaction will flow to the entity; and

(e)

the costs incurred or to be incurred in respect of the transaction can be measured reliably.

The assessment of when an entity has transferred the significant risks and rewards of ownership to the buyer requires an examination of the circumstances of the transaction. In most cases, the transfer of the risks and rewards of ownership coincides with the transfer of the legal title or the passing of possession to the buyer. This is the case for most retail sales. In other cases, the transfer of risks and rewards of ownership occurs at a different time from the transfer of legal title or the passing of possession.

If the entity retains significant risks of ownership, the transaction is not a sale and revenue is not recognised. An entity may retain a significant risk of ownership in a number of ways. Examples of situations in which the entity may retain the significant risks and rewards of ownership are:

(a)

when the entity retains an obligation for unsatisfactory performance not covered by normal warranty provisions;

(b)

when the receipt of the revenue from a particular sale is contingent on the derivation of revenue by the buyer from its sale of the goods;

(c)

when the goods are shipped subject to installation and the installation is a significant part of the contract which has not yet been completed by the entity; and

(d)

when the buyer has the right to rescind the purchase for a reason specified in the sales contract and the entity is uncertain about the probability of return.

If an entity retains only an insignificant risk of ownership, the transaction is a sale and revenue is recognised. For example, a seller may retain the legal title to the goods solely to protect the collectability of the amount due. In such a case, if the entity has transferred the significant risks and rewards of ownership, the transaction is a sale and revenue is recognised. Another example of an entity retaining only an insignificant risk of ownership may be a retail sale when a refund is offered if the customer is not satisfied. Revenue in such cases is recognised at the time of sale provided the seller can reliably estimate future returns and recognises a liability for returns based on previous experience and other relevant factors.

Revenue is recognised only when it is probable that the economic benefits associated with the transaction will flow to the entity. In some cases, this may not be probable until the consideration is received or until an uncertainty is removed. For example, it may be uncertain that a foreign governmental authority will grant permission to remit the consideration from a sale in a foreign country. When the permission is granted, the uncertainty is removed and revenue is recognised. However, when an uncertainty arises about the collectability of an amount already included in revenue, the uncollectible amount or the amount in respect of which recovery has ceased to be probable is recognised as an expense, rather than as an adjustment of the amount of revenue originally recognised.

Revenue and expenses that relate to the same transaction or other event are recognised simultaneously; this process is commonly referred to as the matching of revenues and expenses. Expenses, including warranties and other costs to be incurred after the shipment of the goods can normally be measured reliably when the other conditions for the recognition of revenue have been satisfied. However, revenue cannot be recognised when the expenses cannot be measured reliably; in such circumstances, any consideration already received for the sale of the goods is recognised as a liability.

RENDERING OF SERVICES

When the outcome of a transaction involving the rendering of services can be estimated reliably, revenue associated with the transaction shall be recognised by reference to the stage of completion of the transaction at the balance sheet date. The outcome of a transaction can be estimated reliably when all the following conditions are satisfied:

(a)

the amount of revenue can be measured reliably;

(b)

it is probable that the economic benefits associated with the transaction will flow to the entity;

(c)

the stage of completion of the transaction at the balance sheet date can be measured reliably; and

(d)

the costs incurred for the transaction and the costs to complete the transaction can be measured reliably ( 2 ) .

The recognition of revenue by reference to the stage of completion of a transaction is often referred to as the percentage of completion method. Under this method, revenue is recognised in the accounting periods in which the services are rendered. The recognition of revenue on this basis provides useful information on the extent of service activity and performance during a period. IAS 11 also requires the recognition of revenue on this basis. The requirements of that standard are generally applicable to the recognition of revenue and the associated expenses for a transaction involving the rendering of services.

Revenue is recognised only when it is probable that the economic benefits associated with the transaction will flow to the entity. However, when an uncertainty arises about the collectability of an amount already included in revenue, the uncollectible amount, or the amount in respect of which recovery has ceased to be probable, is recognised as an expense, rather than as an adjustment of the amount of revenue originally recognised.

An entity is generally able to make reliable estimates after it has agreed to the following with the other parties to the transaction:

(a)

each party's enforceable rights regarding the service to be provided and received by the parties;

(b)

the consideration to be exchanged; and

(c)

the manner and terms of settlement.

It is also usually necessary for the entity to have an effective internal financial budgeting and reporting system. The entity reviews and, when necessary, revises the estimates of revenue as the service is performed. The need for such revisions does not necessarily indicate that the outcome of the transaction cannot be estimated reliably.

The stage of completion of a transaction may be determined by a variety of methods. An entity uses the method that measures reliably the services performed. Depending on the nature of the transaction, the methods may include:

(a)

surveys of work performed;

(b)

services performed to date as a percentage of total services to be performed; or

(c)

the proportion that costs incurred to date bear to the estimated total costs of the transaction. Only costs that reflect services performed to date are included in costs incurred to date. Only costs that reflect services performed or to be performed are included in the estimated total costs of the transaction.

Progress payments and advances received from customers often do not reflect the services performed.

For practical purposes, when services are performed by an indeterminate number of acts over a specified period of time, revenue is recognised on a straight-line basis over the specified period unless there is evidence that some other method better represents the stage of completion. When a specific act is much more significant than any other acts, the recognition of revenue is postponed until the significant act is executed.

When the outcome of the transaction involving the rendering of services cannot be estimated reliably, revenue shall be recognised only to the extent of the expenses recognised that are recoverable.

During the early stages of a transaction, it is often the case that the outcome of the transaction cannot be estimated reliably. Nevertheless, it may be probable that the entity will recover the transaction costs incurred. Therefore, revenue is recognised only to the extent of costs incurred that are expected to be recoverable. As the outcome of the transaction cannot be estimated reliably, no profit is recognised.

When the outcome of a transaction cannot be estimated reliably and it is not probable that the costs incurred will be recovered, revenue is not recognised and the costs incurred are recognised as an expense. When the uncertainties that prevented the outcome of the contract being estimated reliably no longer exist, revenue is recognised in accordance with paragraph 20 rather than in accordance with paragraph 26.

INTEREST, ROYALTIES AND DIVIDENDS

Revenue arising from the use by others of entity assets yielding interest, royalties and dividends shall be recognised on the bases set out in paragraph 30 when:

(a)

it is probable that the economic benefits associated with the transaction will flow to the entity; and

(b)

the amount of the revenue can be measured reliably.

Revenue shall be recognised on the following bases:

(a)

interest shall be recognised using the effective interest method as set out in IAS 39, paragraphs 9 and AG5-AG8;

(b)

royalties shall be recognised on an accrual basis in accordance with the substance of the relevant agreement; and

(c)

dividends shall be recognised when the shareholder's right to receive payment is established.

[Deleted]

When unpaid interest has accrued before the acquisition of an interest-bearing investment, the subsequent receipt of interest is allocated between pre-acquisition and post-acquisition periods; only the post-acquisition portion is recognised as revenue. When dividends on equity securities are declared from pre-acquisition profits, those dividends are deducted from the cost of the securities. If it is difficult to make such an allocation except on an arbitrary basis, dividends are recognised as revenue unless they clearly represent a recovery of part of the cost of the equity securities.

Royalties accrue in accordance with the terms of the relevant agreement and are usually recognised on that basis unless, having regard to the substance of the agreement, it is more appropriate to recognise revenue on some other systematic and rational basis.

DISCLOSURE

An entity shall disclose:

(a)

the accounting policies adopted for the recognition of revenue, including the methods adopted to determine the stage of completion of transactions involving the rendering of services;

(b)

the amount of each significant category of revenue recognised during the period, including revenue arising from:

(i)

the sale of goods;

(ii)

the rendering of services;

(iii)

interest;

(iv)

royalties;

(v)

dividends; and

(c)

the amount of revenue arising from exchanges of goods or services included in each significant category of revenue.

An entity discloses any contingent liabilities and contingent assets in accordance with IAS 37 Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets . Contingent liabilities and contingent assets may arise from items such as warranty costs, claims, penalties or possible losses.

EFFECTIVE DATE

This standard becomes operative for financial statements covering periods beginning on or after 1 January 1995.

( 1 ) See also SIC-31 Revenue — barter transactions involving advertising services.

( 2 ) See also SIC-27 Evaluating the substance of transactions in the legal form of a lease and SIC-31 Revenue — barter transactions involving advertising services.

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 19

Employee benefits

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this standard is to prescribe the accounting and disclosure for employee benefits. The standard requires an entity to recognise:

(a)

a liability when an employee has provided service in exchange for employee benefits to be paid in the future; and

(b)

an expense when the entity consumes the economic benefit arising from service provided by an employee in exchange for employee benefits.

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied by an employer in accounting for all employee benefits, except those to which IFRS 2 Share-based payment applies.

This standard does not deal with reporting by employee benefit plans (see IAS 26 Accounting and reporting by retirement benefit plans ).

The employee benefits to which this standard applies include those provided:

(a)

under formal plans or other formal agreements between an entity and individual employees, groups of employees or their representatives;

(b)

under legislative requirements, or through industry arrangements, whereby entities are required to contribute to national, state, industry or other multi-employer plans; or

(c)

by those informal practices that give rise to a constructive obligation. Informal practices give rise to a constructive obligation where the entity has no realistic alternative but to pay employee benefits. An example of a constructive obligation is where a change in the entity's informal practices would cause unacceptable damage to its relationship with employees.

Employee benefits include:

(a)

short-term employee benefits, such as wages, salaries and social security contributions, paid annual leave and paid sick leave, profit-sharing and bonuses (if payable within 12 months of the end of the period) and non-monetary benefits (such as medical care, housing, cars and free or subsidised goods or services) for current employees;

(b)

post-employment benefits such as pensions, other retirement benefits, post-employment life insurance and post-employment medical care;

(c)

other long-term employee benefits, including long-service leave or sabbatical leave, jubilee or other long-service benefits, long-term disability benefits and, if they are not payable wholly within 12 months after the end of the period, profit-sharing, bonuses and deferred compensation; and

(d)

termination benefits.

Because each category identified in (a)-(d) above has different characteristics, this standard establishes separate requirements for each category.

Employee benefits include benefits provided to either employees or their dependants and may be settled by payments (or the provision of goods or services) made either directly to the employees, to their spouses, children or other dependants or to others, such as insurance companies.

An employee may provide services to an entity on a full-time, part-time, permanent, casual or temporary basis. For the purpose of this standard, employees include directors and other management personnel.

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

Employee benefits are all forms of consideration given by an entity in exchange for service rendered by employees.

Short-term employee benefits are employee benefits (other than termination benefits) which fall due wholly within 12 months after the end of the period in which the employees render the related service.

Post-employment benefits are employee benefits (other than termination benefits) which are payable after the completion of employment.

Post-employment benefit plans are formal or informal arrangements under which an entity provides post-employment benefits for one or more employees.

Defined contribution plans are post-employment benefit plans under which an entity pays fixed contributions into a separate entity (a fund) and will have no legal or constructive obligation to pay further contributions if the fund does not hold sufficient assets to pay all employee benefits relating to employee service in the current and prior periods.

Defined benefit plans are post-employment benefit plans other than defined contribution plans.

Multi-employer plans are defined contribution plans (other than state plans) or defined benefit plans (other than state plans) that:

(a)

pool the assets contributed by various entities that are not under common control; and

(b)

use those assets to provide benefits to employees of more than one entity, on the basis that contribution and benefit levels are determined without regard to the identity of the entity that employs the employees concerned.

Other long-term employee benefits are employee benefits (other than post-employment benefits and termination benefits) which do not fall due wholly within 12 months after the end of the period in which the employees render the related service.

Termination benefits are employee benefits payable as a result of either:

(a)

an entity's decision to terminate an employee's employment before the normal retirement date; or

(b)

an employee's decision to accept voluntary redundancy in exchange for those benefits.

Vested employee benefits are employee benefits that are not conditional on future employment.

The present value of a defined benefit obligation is the present value, without deducting any plan assets, of expected future payments required to settle the obligation resulting from employee service in the current and prior periods.

Current service cost is the increase in the present value of a defined benefit obligation resulting from employee service in the current period.

Interest cost is the increase during a period in the present value of a defined benefit obligation which arises because the benefits are one period closer to settlement.

Plan assets comprise:

(a)

assets held by a long-term employee benefit fund; and

(b)

qualifying insurance policies.

Assets held by a long-term employee benefit fund are assets (other than non-transferable financial instruments issued by the reporting entity) that:

(a)

are held by an entity (a fund) that is legally separate from the reporting entity and exists solely to pay or fund employee benefits; and

(b)

are available to be used only to pay or fund employee benefits, are not available to the reporting entity's own creditors (even in bankruptcy), and cannot be returned to the reporting entity, unless either:

(i)

the remaining assets of the fund are sufficient to meet all the related employee benefit obligations of the plan or the reporting entity; or

(ii)

the assets are returned to the reporting entity to reimburse it for employee benefits already paid.

A qualifying insurance policy is an insurance policy ( 1 ) issued by an insurer that is not a related party (as defined in IAS 24 Related party disclosures ) of the reporting entity, if the proceeds of the policy:

(a)

can be used only to pay or fund employee benefits under a defined benefit plan; and

(b)

are not available to the reporting entity's own creditors (even in bankruptcy) and cannot be paid to the reporting entity, unless either:

(i)

the proceeds represent surplus assets that are not needed for the policy to meet all the related employee benefit obligations; or

(ii)

the proceeds are returned to the reporting entity to reimburse it for employee benefits already paid.

Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged or a liability settled between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm's length transaction.

The return on plan assets is interest, dividends and other revenue derived from the plan assets, together with realised and unrealised gains or losses on the plan assets, less any costs of administering the plan and less any tax payable by the plan itself.

Actuarial gains and losses comprise:

(a)

experience adjustments (the effects of differences between the previous actuarial assumptions and what has actually occurred); and

(b)

the effects of changes in actuarial assumptions.

Past service cost is the increase in the present value of the defined benefit obligation for employee service in prior periods, resulting in the current period from the introduction of, or changes to, post-employment benefits or other long-term employee benefits. Past service cost may be either positive (where benefits are introduced or improved) or negative (where existing benefits are reduced).

SHORT-TERM EMPLOYEE BENEFITS

Short-term employee benefits include items such as:

(a)

wages, salaries and social security contributions;

(b)

short-term compensated absences (such as paid annual leave and paid sick leave) where the absences are expected to occur within 12 months after the end of the period in which the employees render the related employee service;

(c)

profit-sharing and bonuses payable within 12 months after the end of the period in which the employees render the related service; and

(d)

non-monetary benefits (such as medical care, housing, cars and free or subsidised goods or services) for current employees.

Accounting for short-term employee benefits is generally straightforward because no actuarial assumptions are required to measure the obligation or the cost and there is no possibility of any actuarial gain or loss. Moreover, short-term employee benefit obligations are measured on an undiscounted basis.

Recognition and measurement

All short-term employee benefits

When an employee has rendered service to an entity during an accounting period, the entity shall recognise the undiscounted amount of short-term employee benefits expected to be paid in exchange for that service:

(a)

as a liability (accrued expense), after deducting any amount already paid. If the amount already paid exceeds the undiscounted amount of the benefits, an entity shall recognise that excess as an asset (prepaid expense) to the extent that the prepayment will lead to, for example, a reduction in future payments or a cash refund; and

(b)

as an expense, unless another standard requires or permits the inclusion of the benefits in the cost of an asset (see, for example, IAS 2 Inventories and IAS 16 Property, plant and equipment ).

Paragraphs 11, 14 and 17 explain how an entity shall apply this requirement to short-term employee benefits in the form of compensated absences and profit-sharing and bonus plans.

Short-term compensated absences

An entity shall recognise the expected cost of short-term employee benefits in the form of compensated absences under paragraph 10 as follows:

(a)

in the case of accumulating compensated absences, when the employees render service that increases their entitlement to future compensated absences; and

(b)

in the case of non-accumulating compensated absences, when the absences occur.

An entity may compensate employees for absence for various reasons, including vacation, sickness and short-term disability, maternity or paternity, jury service and military service. Entitlement to compensated absences falls into two categories:

(a)

accumulating; and

(b)

non-accumulating.

Accumulating compensated absences are those that are carried forward and can be used in future periods if the current period's entitlement is not used in full. Accumulating compensated absences may be either vesting (in other words, employees are entitled to a cash payment for unused entitlement on leaving the entity) or non-vesting (when employees are not entitled to a cash payment for unused entitlement on leaving). An obligation arises as employees render service that increases their entitlement to future compensated absences. The obligation exists, and is recognised, even if the compensated absences are non-vesting, although the possibility that employees may leave before they use an accumulated non-vesting entitlement affects the measurement of that obligation.

An entity shall measure the expected cost of accumulating compensated absences as the additional amount that the entity expects to pay as a result of the unused entitlement that has accumulated at the balance sheet date.

The method specified in the previous paragraph measures the obligation at the amount of the additional payments that are expected to arise solely from the fact that the benefit accumulates. In many cases, an entity may not need to make detailed computations to estimate that there is no material obligation for unused compensated absences. For example, a sick leave obligation is likely to be material only if there is a formal or informal understanding that unused paid sick leave may be taken as paid vacation.

Example illustrating paragraphs 14 and 15

An entity has 100 employees, who are each entitled to five working days of paid sick leave for each year. Unused sick leave may be carried forward for one calendar year. Sick leave is taken first out of the current year's entitlement and then out of any balance brought forward from the previous year (a LIFO basis). At 30 December 20X1, the average unused entitlement is two days per employee. The entity expects, based on past experience which is expected to continue, that 92 employees will take no more than five days of paid sick leave in 20X2 and that the remaining eight employees will take an average of six and a half days each.

The entity expects that it will pay an additional 12 days of sick pay as a result of the unused entitlement that has accumulated at 31 December 20X1 (one and a half days each, for eight employees). Therefore, the entity recognises a liability equal to 12 days of sick pay.

Non-accumulating compensated absences do not carry forward: they lapse if the current period's entitlement is not used in full and do not entitle employees to a cash payment for unused entitlement on leaving the entity. This is commonly the case for sick pay (to the extent that unused past entitlement does not increase future entitlement), maternity or paternity leave and compensated absences for jury service or military service. An entity recognises no liability or expense until the time of the absence, because employee service does not increase the amount of the benefit.

Profit-sharing and bonus plans

An entity shall recognise the expected cost of profit-sharing and bonus payments under paragraph 10 when, and only when:

(a)

the entity has a present legal or constructive obligation to make such payments as a result of past events; and

(b)

a reliable estimate of the obligation can be made.

A present obligation exists when, and only when, the entity has no realistic alternative but to make the payments.

Under some profit-sharing plans, employees receive a share of the profit only if they remain with the entity for a specified period. Such plans create a constructive obligation as employees render service that increases the amount to be paid if they remain in service until the end of the specified period. The measurement of such constructive obligations reflects the possibility that some employees may leave without receiving profit-sharing payments.

Example illustrating paragraph 18

A profit-sharing plan requires an entity to pay a specified proportion of its profit for the year to employees who serve throughout the year. If no employees leave during the year, the total profit-sharing payments for the year will be 3 % of profit. The entity estimates that staff turnover will reduce the payments to 2,5 % of profit.

The entity recognises a liability and an expense of 2,5 % of profit.

An entity may have no legal obligation to pay a bonus. Nevertheless, in some cases, an entity has a practice of paying bonuses. In such cases, the entity has a constructive obligation because the entity has no realistic alternative but to pay the bonus. The measurement of the constructive obligation reflects the possibility that some employees may leave without receiving a bonus.

An entity can make a reliable estimate of its legal or constructive obligation under a profit-sharing or bonus plan when, and only when:

(a)

the formal terms of the plan contain a formula for determining the amount of the benefit;

(b)

the entity determines the amounts to be paid before the financial statements are authorised for issue; or

(c)

past practice gives clear evidence of the amount of the entity's constructive obligation.

An obligation under profit-sharing and bonus plans results from employee service and not from a transaction with the entity's owners. Therefore, an entity recognises the cost of profit-sharing and bonus plans not as a distribution of profit but as an expense.

If profit-sharing and bonus payments are not due wholly within 12 months after the end of the period in which the employees render the related service, those payments are other long-term employee benefits (see paragraphs 126-131).

Disclosure

Although this standard does not require specific disclosures about short-term employee benefits, other standards may require disclosures. For example, IAS 24 Related party disclosures requires disclosures about employee benefits for key management personnel. IAS 1 Presentation of financial statements requires disclosure of employee benefits expense.

POST-EMPLOYMENT BENEFITS: DISTINCTION BETWEEN DEFINED CONTRIBUTION PLANS AND DEFINED BENEFIT PLANS

Post-employment benefits include, for example:

(a)

retirement benefits, such as pensions; and

(b)

other post-employment benefits, such as post-employment life insurance and post-employment medical care.

Arrangements whereby an entity provides post-employment benefits are post-employment benefit plans. An entity applies this standard to all such arrangements whether or not they involve the establishment of a separate entity to receive contributions and to pay benefits.

Post-employment benefit plans are classified as either defined contribution plans or defined benefit plans, depending on the economic substance of the plan as derived from its principal terms and conditions. Under defined contribution plans:

(a)

the entity's legal or constructive obligation is limited to the amount that it agrees to contribute to the fund. Thus, the amount of the post-employment benefits received by the employee is determined by the amount of contributions paid by an entity (and perhaps also the employee) to a post-employment benefit plan or to an insurance company, together with investment returns arising from the contributions; and

(b)

in consequence, actuarial risk (that benefits will be less than expected) and investment risk (that assets invested will be insufficient to meet expected benefits) fall on the employee.

Examples of cases where an entity's obligation is not limited to the amount that it agrees to contribute to the fund are when the entity has a legal or constructive obligation through:

(a)

a plan benefit formula that is not linked solely to the amount of contributions;

(b)

a guarantee, either indirectly through a plan or directly, of a specified return on contributions; or

(c)

those informal practices that give rise to a constructive obligation. For example, a constructive obligation may arise where an entity has a history of increasing benefits for former employees to keep pace with inflation even where there is no legal obligation to do so.

Under defined benefit plans:

(a)

the entity's obligation is to provide the agreed benefits to current and former employees; and

(b)

actuarial risk (that benefits will cost more than expected) and investment risk fall, in substance, on the entity. If actuarial or investment experience are worse than expected, the entity's obligation may be increased.

Paragraphs 29-42 below explain the distinction between defined contribution plans and defined benefit plans in the context of multi-employer plans, state plans and insured benefits.

Multi-employer plans

An entity shall classify a multi-employer plan as a defined contribution plan or a defined benefit plan under the terms of the plan (including any constructive obligation that goes beyond the formal terms). Where a multi-employer plan is a defined benefit plan, an entity shall:

(a)

account for its proportionate share of the defined benefit obligation, plan assets and cost associated with the plan in the same way as for any other defined benefit plan; and

(b)

disclose the information required by paragraph 120A.

When sufficient information is not available to use defined benefit accounting for a multi-employer plan that is a defined benefit plan, an entity shall:

(a)

account for the plan under paragraphs 44-46 as if it were a defined contribution plan;

(b)

disclose:

(i)

the fact that the plan is a defined benefit plan; and

(ii)

the reason why sufficient information is not available to enable the entity to account for the plan as a defined benefit plan; and

(c)

to the extent that a surplus or deficit in the plan may affect the amount of future contributions, disclose in addition:

(i)

any available information about that surplus or deficit;

(ii)

the basis used to determine that surplus or deficit; and

(iii)

the implications, if any, for the entity.

One example of a defined benefit multi-employer plan is one where:

(a)

the plan is financed on a pay-as-you-go basis such that: contributions are set at a level that is expected to be sufficient to pay the benefits falling due in the same period; and future benefits earned during the current period will be paid out of future contributions; and

(b)

employees' benefits are determined by the length of their service and the participating entities have no realistic means of withdrawing from the plan without paying a contribution for the benefits earned by employees up to the date of withdrawal. Such a plan creates actuarial risk for the entity: if the ultimate cost of benefits already earned at the balance sheet date is more than expected, the entity will have to either increase its contributions or persuade employees to accept a reduction in benefits. Therefore, such a plan is a defined benefit plan.

Where sufficient information is available about a multi-employer plan which is a defined benefit plan, an entity accounts for its proportionate share of the defined benefit obligation, plan assets and post-employment benefit cost associated with the plan in the same way as for any other defined benefit plan. However, in some cases, an entity may not be able to identify its share of the underlying financial position and performance of the plan with sufficient reliability for accounting purposes. This may occur if:

(a)

the entity does not have access to information about the plan that satisfies the requirements of this standard; or

(b)

the plan exposes the participating entities to actuarial risks associated with the current and former employees of other entities, with the result that there is no consistent and reliable basis for allocating the obligation, plan assets and cost to individual entities participating in the plan.

In those cases, an entity accounts for the plan as if it were a defined contribution plan and discloses the additional information required by paragraph 30.

32A

There may be a contractual agreement between the multi-employer plan and its participants that determines how the surplus in the plan will be distributed to the participants (or the deficit funded). A participant in a multi-employer plan with such an agreement that accounts for the plan as a defined contribution plan in accordance with paragraph 30 shall recognise the asset or liability that arises from the contractual agreement and the resulting income or expense in profit or loss.

Example illustrating paragraph 32A

An entity participates in a multi-employer defined benefit plan that does not prepare plan valuations on an IAS 19 basis. It therefore accounts for the plan as if it were a defined contribution plan. A non-IAS 19 funding valuation shows a deficit of 100 million in the plan. The plan has agreed under contract a schedule of contributions with the participating employers in the plan that will eliminate the deficit over the next five years. The entity's total contributions under the contract are 8 million.

The entity recognises a liability for the contributions adjusted for the time value of money and an equal expense in profit or loss.

32B

IAS 37 Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets requires an entity to recognise, or disclose information about, certain contingent liabilities. In the context of a multi-employer plan, a contingent liability may arise from, for example:

(a)

actuarial losses relating to other participating entities because each entity that participates in a multi-employer plan shares in the actuarial risks of every other participating entity; or

(b)

any responsibility under the terms of a plan to finance any shortfall in the plan if other entities cease to participate.

Multi-employer plans are distinct from group administration plans. A group administration plan is merely an aggregation of single employer plans combined to allow participating employers to pool their assets for investment purposes and reduce investment management and administration costs, but the claims of different employers are segregated for the sole benefit of their own employees. Group administration plans pose no particular accounting problems because information is readily available to treat them in the same way as any other single employer plan and because such plans do not expose the participating entities to actuarial risks associated with the current and former employees of other entities. The definitions in this standard require an entity to classify a group administration plan as a defined contribution plan or a defined benefit plan in accordance with the terms of the plan (including any constructive obligation that goes beyond the formal terms).

Defined benefit plans that share risks between various entities under common control

Defined benefit plans that share risks between various entities under common control, for example, a parent and its subsidiaries, are not multi-employer plans.

34A

An entity participating in such a plan shall obtain information about the plan as a whole measured in accordance with IAS 19 on the basis of assumptions that apply to the plan as a whole. If there is a contractual agreement or stated policy for charging the net defined benefit cost for the plan as a whole measured in accordance with IAS 19 to individual group entities, the entity shall, in its separate or individual financial statements, recognise the net defined benefit cost so charged. If there is no such agreement or policy, the net defined benefit cost shall be recognised in the separate or individual financial statements of the group entity that is legally the sponsoring employer for the plan. The other group entities shall, in their separate or individual financial statements, recognise a cost equal to their contribution payable for the period.

34B

Participation in such a plan is a related party transaction for each individual group entity. An entity shall therefore, in its separate or individual financial statements, make the following disclosures:

(a)

the contractual agreement or stated policy for charging the net defined benefit cost or the fact that there is no such policy;

(b)

the policy for determining the contribution to be paid by the entity;

(c)

if the entity accounts for an allocation of the net defined benefit cost in accordance with paragraph 34A, all the information about the plan as a whole in accordance with paragraphs 120-121;

(d)

if the entity accounts for the contribution payable for the period in accordance with paragraph 34A, the information about the plan as a whole required in accordance with paragraphs 120A(b)-(e), (j), (n), (o), (q) and 121. The other disclosures required by paragraph 120A do not apply.

[Deleted]

State plans

An entity shall account for a state plan in the same way as for a multi-employer plan (see paragraphs 29 and 30).

State plans are established by legislation to cover all entities (or all entities in a particular category, for example, a specific industry) and are operated by national or local government or by another body (for example, an autonomous agency created specifically for this purpose) which is not subject to control or influence by the reporting entity. Some plans established by an entity provide both compulsory benefits which substitute for benefits that would otherwise be covered under a state plan and additional voluntary benefits. Such plans are not state plans.

State plans are characterised as defined benefit or defined contribution in nature based on the entity's obligation under the plan. Many state plans are funded on a pay-as-you-go basis: contributions are set at a level that is expected to be sufficient to pay the required benefits falling due in the same period; future benefits earned during the current period will be paid out of future contributions. Nevertheless, in most state plans, the entity has no legal or constructive obligation to pay those future benefits: its only obligation is to pay the contributions as they fall due and if the entity ceases to employ members of the state plan, it will have no obligation to pay the benefits earned by its own employees in previous years. For this reason, state plans are normally defined contribution plans. However, in the rare cases when a state plan is a defined benefit plan, an entity applies the treatment prescribed in paragraphs 29 and 30.

Insured benefits

An entity may pay insurance premiums to fund a post-employment benefit plan. The entity shall treat such a plan as a defined contribution plan unless the entity will have (either directly, or indirectly through the plan) a legal or constructive obligation to either:

(a)

pay the employee benefits directly when they fall due; or

(b)

pay further amounts if the insurer does not pay all future employee benefits relating to employee service in the current and prior periods.

If the entity retains such a legal or constructive obligation, the entity shall treat the plan as a defined benefit plan.

The benefits insured by an insurance contract need not have a direct or automatic relationship with the entity's obligation for employee benefits. Post-employment benefit plans involving insurance contracts are subject to the same distinction between accounting and funding as other funded plans.

Where an entity funds a post-employment benefit obligation by contributing to an insurance policy under which the entity (either directly, indirectly through the plan, through the mechanism for setting future premiums or through a related party relationship with the insurer) retains a legal or constructive obligation, the payment of the premiums does not amount to a defined contribution arrangement. It follows that the entity:

(a)

accounts for a qualifying insurance policy as a plan asset (see paragraph 7); and

(b)

recognises other insurance policies as reimbursement rights (if the policies satisfy the criteria in paragraph 104A).

Where an insurance policy is in the name of a specified plan participant or a group of plan participants and the entity does not have any legal or constructive obligation to cover any loss on the policy, the entity has no obligation to pay benefits to the employees and the insurer has sole responsibility for paying the benefits. The payment of fixed premiums under such contracts is, in substance, the settlement of the employee benefit obligation, rather than an investment to meet the obligation. Consequently, the entity no longer has an asset or a liability. Therefore, an entity treats such payments as contributions to a defined contribution plan.

POST-EMPLOYMENT BENEFITS: DEFINED CONTRIBUTION PLANS

Accounting for defined contribution plans is straightforward because the reporting entity's obligation for each period is determined by the amounts to be contributed for that period. Consequently, no actuarial assumptions are required to measure the obligation or the expense and there is no possibility of any actuarial gain or loss. Moreover, the obligations are measured on an undiscounted basis, except where they do not fall due wholly within 12 months after the end of the period in which the employees render the related service.

Recognition and measurement

When an employee has rendered service to an entity during a period, the entity shall recognise the contribution payable to a defined contribution plan in exchange for that service:

(a)

as a liability (accrued expense), after deducting any contribution already paid. If the contribution already paid exceeds the contribution due for service before the balance sheet date, an entity shall recognise that excess as an asset (prepaid expense) to the extent that the prepayment will lead to, for example, a reduction in future payments or a cash refund; and

(b)

as an expense, unless another standard requires or permits the inclusion of the contribution in the cost of an asset (see, for example, IAS 2 Inventories and IAS 16 Property, plant and equipment ).

Where contributions to a defined contribution plan do not fall due wholly within 12 months after the end of the period in which the employees render the related service, they shall be discounted using the discount rate specified in paragraph 78.

Disclosure

An entity shall disclose the amount recognised as an expense for defined contribution plans.

Where required by IAS 24 an entity discloses information about contributions to defined contribution plans for key management personnel.

POST-EMPLOYMENT BENEFITS: DEFINED BENEFIT PLANS

Accounting for defined benefit plans is complex because actuarial assumptions are required to measure the obligation and the expense and there is a possibility of actuarial gains and losses. Moreover, the obligations are measured on a discounted basis because they may be settled many years after the employees render the related service.

Recognition and measurement

Defined benefit plans may be unfunded, or they may be wholly or partly funded by contributions by an entity, and sometimes its employees, into an entity, or fund, that is legally separate from the reporting entity and from which the employee benefits are paid. The payment of funded benefits when they fall due depends not only on the financial position and the investment performance of the fund but also on an entity's ability (and willingness) to make good any shortfall in the fund's assets. Therefore, the entity is, in substance, underwriting the actuarial and investment risks associated with the plan. Consequently, the expense recognised for a defined benefit plan is not necessarily the amount of the contribution due for the period.

Accounting by an entity for defined benefit plans involves the following steps:

(a)

using actuarial techniques to make a reliable estimate of the amount of benefit that employees have earned in return for their service in the current and prior periods. This requires an entity to determine how much benefit is attributable to the current and prior periods (see paragraphs 67-71) and to make estimates (actuarial assumptions) about demographic variables (such as employee turnover and mortality) and financial variables (such as future increases in salaries and medical costs) that will influence the cost of the benefit (see paragraphs 72-91);

(b)

discounting that benefit using the Projected Unit Credit Method in order to determine the present value of the defined benefit obligation and the current service cost (see paragraphs 64-66);

(c)

determining the fair value of any plan assets (see paragraphs 102-104);

(d)

determining the total amount of actuarial gains and losses and the amount of those actuarial gains and losses to be recognised (see paragraphs 92-95);

(e)

where a plan has been introduced or changed, determining the resulting past service cost (see paragraphs 96-101); and

(f)

where a plan has been curtailed or settled, determining the resulting gain or loss (see paragraphs 109-115).

Where an entity has more than one defined benefit plan, the entity applies these procedures for each material plan separately.

In some cases, estimates, averages and computational short cuts may provide a reliable approximation of the detailed computations illustrated in this standard.

Accounting for the constructive obligation

An entity shall account not only for its legal obligation under the formal terms of a defined benefit plan, but also for any constructive obligation that arises from the entity's informal practices. Informal practices give rise to a constructive obligation where the entity has no realistic alternative but to pay employee benefits. An example of a constructive obligation is where a change in the entity's informal practices would cause unacceptable damage to its relationship with employees.

The formal terms of a defined benefit plan may permit an entity to terminate its obligation under the plan. Nevertheless, it is usually difficult for an entity to cancel a plan if employees are to be retained. Therefore, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, accounting for post-employment benefits assumes that an entity which is currently promising such benefits will continue to do so over the remaining working lives of employees.

Balance sheet

The amount recognised as a defined benefit liability shall be the net total of the following amounts:

(a)

the present value of the defined benefit obligation at the balance sheet date (see paragraph 64);

(b)

plus any actuarial gains (less any actuarial losses) not recognised because of the treatment set out in paragraphs 92 and 93;

(c)

minus any past service cost not yet recognised (see paragraph 96);

(d)

minus the fair value at the balance sheet date of plan assets (if any) out of which the obligations are to be settled directly (see paragraphs 102-104).

The present value of the defined benefit obligation is the gross obligation, before deducting the fair value of any plan assets.

An entity shall determine the present value of defined benefit obligations and the fair value of any plan assets with sufficient regularity that the amounts recognised in the financial statements do not differ materially from the amounts that would be determined at the balance sheet date.

This standard encourages, but does not require, an entity to involve a qualified actuary in the measurement of all material post-employment benefit obligations. For practical reasons, an entity may request a qualified actuary to carry out a detailed valuation of the obligation before the balance sheet date. Nevertheless, the results of that valuation are updated for any material transactions and other material changes in circumstances (including changes in market prices and interest rates) up to the balance sheet date.

The amount determined under paragraph 54 may be negative (an asset). An entity shall measure the resulting asset at the lower of:

(a)

the amount determined under paragraph 54; and

(b)

the total of:

(i)

any cumulative unrecognised net actuarial losses and past service cost (see paragraphs 92, 93 and 96); and

(ii)

the present value of any economic benefits available in the form of refunds from the plan or reductions in future contributions to the plan. The present value of these economic benefits shall be determined using the discount rate specified in paragraph 78.

58A

The application of paragraph 58 shall not result in a gain being recognised solely as a result of an actuarial loss or past service cost in the current period or in a loss being recognised solely as a result of an actuarial gain in the current period. The entity shall therefore recognise immediately under paragraph 54 the following, to the extent that they arise while the defined benefit asset is determined in accordance with paragraph 58(b):

(a)

net actuarial losses of the current period and past service cost of the current period to the extent that they exceed any reduction in the present value of the economic benefits specified in paragraph 58(b)(ii). If there is no change or an increase in the present value of the economic benefits, the entire net actuarial losses of the current period and past service cost of the current period shall be recognised immediately under paragraph 54;

(b)

net actuarial gains of the current period after the deduction of past service cost of the current period to the extent that they exceed any increase in the present value of the economic benefits specified in paragraph 58(b)(ii). If there is no change or a decrease in the present value of the economic benefits, the entire net actuarial gains of the current period after the deduction of past service cost of the current period shall be recognised immediately under paragraph 54.

58B

Paragraph 58A applies to an entity only if it has, at the beginning or end of the accounting period, a surplus ( 2 ) in a defined benefit plan and cannot, based on the current terms of the plan, recover that surplus fully through refunds or reductions in future contributions. In such cases, past service cost and actuarial losses that arise in the period, the recognition of which is deferred under paragraph 54, will increase the amount specified in paragraph 58(b)(i). If that increase is not offset by an equal decrease in the present value of economic benefits that qualify for recognition under paragraph 58(b)(ii), there will be an increase in the net total specified by paragraph 58(b) and, hence, a recognised gain. Paragraph 58A prohibits the recognition of a gain in these circumstances. The opposite effect arises with actuarial gains that arise in the period, the recognition of which is deferred under paragraph 54, to the extent that the actuarial gains reduce cumulative unrecognised actuarial losses. Paragraph 58A prohibits the recognition of a loss in these circumstances. For examples of the application of this paragraph, see Appendix C.

An asset may arise where a defined benefit plan has been overfunded or in certain cases where actuarial gains are recognised. An entity recognises an asset in such cases because:

(a)

the entity controls a resource, which is the ability to use the surplus to generate future benefits;

(b)

that control is a result of past events (contributions paid by the entity and service rendered by the employee); and

(c)

future economic benefits are available to the entity in the form of a reduction in future contributions or a cash refund, either directly to the entity or indirectly to another plan in deficit.

The limit in paragraph 58(b) does not override the delayed recognition of certain actuarial losses (see paragraphs 92 and 93) and certain past service cost (see paragraph 96), other than as specified in paragraph 58A. However, that limit does override the transitional option in paragraph 155(b). Paragraph 120A(f)(iii) requires an entity to disclose any amount not recognised as an asset because of the limit in paragraph 58(b).

Example illustrating paragraph 60

A defined benefit plan has the following characteristics:

Present value of the obligation

1 100

Fair value of plan assets

(1 190 )

(90)

Unrecognised actuarial losses

(110)

Unrecognised past service cost

(70)

Unrecognised increase in the liability on initial adoption of the Standard under paragraph 155(b)

(50)

Negative amount determined under paragraph 54

(320)

Present value of available future refunds and reductions in future contributions

The limit under paragraph 58(b) is computed as follows:

Unrecognised actuarial losses

110

Unrecognised past service cost

Present value of available future refunds and reductions in future contributions

Limit

270

270 is less than 320. Therefore, the entity recognises an asset of 270 and discloses that the limit reduced the carrying amount of the asset by 50 (see paragraph 120A(f)(iii)).

Profit or loss

An entity shall recognise the net total of the following amounts in profit or loss, except to the extent that another standard requires or permits their inclusion in the cost of an asset:

(a)

current service cost (see paragraphs 63-91);

(b)

interest cost (see paragraph 82);

(c)

the expected return on any plan assets (see paragraphs 105-107) and on any reimbursement rights (see paragraph 104A);

(d)

actuarial gains and losses, as required in accordance with the entity's accounting policy (see paragraphs 92-93D);

(e)

past service cost (see paragraph 96);

(f)

the effect of any curtailments or settlements (see paragraphs 109 and 110); and

(g)

the effect of the limit in paragraph 58(b), unless it is recognised outside profit or loss in accordance with paragraph 93C.

Other standards require the inclusion of certain employee benefit costs within the cost of assets such as inventories or property, plant and equipment (see IAS 2 and IAS 16). Any post-employment benefit costs included in the cost of such assets include the appropriate proportion of the components listed in paragraph 61.

Recognition and measurement: present value of defined benefit obligations and current service cost

The ultimate cost of a defined benefit plan may be influenced by many variables, such as final salaries, employee turnover and mortality, medical cost trends and, for a funded plan, the investment earnings on the plan assets. The ultimate cost of the plan is uncertain and this uncertainty is likely to persist over a long period of time. In order to measure the present value of the post-employment benefit obligations and the related current service cost, it is necessary to:

(a)

apply an actuarial valuation method (see paragraphs 64-66);

(b)

attribute benefit to periods of service (see paragraphs 67-71); and

(c)

make actuarial assumptions (see paragraphs 72-91).

Actuarial valuation method

An entity shall use the Projected Unit Credit Method to determine the present value of its defined benefit obligations and the related current service cost and, where applicable, past service cost.

The Projected Unit Credit Method (sometimes known as the accrued benefit method pro-rated on service or as the benefit/years of service method) sees each period of service as giving rise to an additional unit of benefit entitlement (see paragraphs 67-71) and measures each unit separately to build up the final obligation (see paragraphs 72-91).

Example illustrating paragraph 65

A lump-sum benefit is payable on termination of service and equal to 1 % of final salary for each year of service. The salary in year 1 is 10 000 and is assumed to increase at 7 % (compound) each year. The discount rate used is 10 % per annum. The following table shows how the obligation builds up for an employee who is expected to leave at the end of year 5, assuming that there are no changes in actuarial assumptions. For simplicity, this example ignores the additional adjustment needed to reflect the probability that the employee may leave the entity at an earlier or later date.

Year

Benefit attributed to:

—

prior years

131

262

393

524

—

current year (1 % of final salary)

131

—

current and prior years

131

262

393

524

655

Opening obligation

—

196

324

476

Interest at 10 %

—

Current service cost

108

119

131

Closing obligation

196

324

476

655

Note:

The opening obligation is the present value of benefit attributed to prior years.

The current service cost is the present value of benefit attributed to the current year.

The closing obligation is the present value of benefit attributed to current and prior years.

An entity discounts the whole of a post-employment benefit obligation, even if part of the obligation falls due within 12 months of the balance sheet date.

Attributing benefit to periods of service

In determining the present value of its defined benefit obligations and the related current service cost and, where applicable, past service cost, an entity shall attribute benefit to periods of service under the plan's benefit formula. However, if an employee's service in later years will lead to a materially higher level of benefit than in earlier years, an entity shall attribute benefit on a straight-line basis from:

(a)

the date when service by the employee first leads to benefits under the plan (whether or not the benefits are conditional on further service); until

(b)

the date when further service by the employee will lead to no material amount of further benefits under the plan, other than from further salary increases.

The Projected Unit Credit Method requires an entity to attribute benefit to the current period (in order to determine current service cost) and the current and prior periods (in order to determine the present value of defined benefit obligations). An entity attributes benefit to periods in which the obligation to provide post-employment benefits arises. That obligation arises as employees render services in return for post-employment benefits which an entity expects to pay in future reporting periods. Actuarial techniques allow an entity to measure that obligation with sufficient reliability to justify recognition of a liability.

Examples illustrating paragraph 68

A defined benefit plan provides a lump-sum benefit of 100 payable on retirement for each year of service.

A benefit of 100 is attributed to each year. The current service cost is the present value of 100. The present value of the defined benefit obligation is the present value of 100, multiplied by the number of years of service up to the balance sheet date.

If the benefit is payable immediately when the employee leaves the entity, the current service cost and the present value of the defined benefit obligation reflect the date at which the employee is expected to leave. Thus, because of the effect of discounting, they are less than the amounts that would be determined if the employee left at the balance sheet date.

A plan provides a monthly pension of 0,2 % of final salary for each year of service. The pension is payable from the age of 65.

Benefit equal to the present value, at the expected retirement date, of a monthly pension of 0,2 % of the estimated final salary payable from the expected retirement date until the expected date of death is attributed to each year of service. The current service cost is the present value of that benefit. The present value of the defined benefit obligation is the present value of monthly pension payments of 0,2 % of final salary, multiplied by the number of years of service up to the balance sheet date. The current service cost and the present value of the defined benefit obligation are discounted because pension payments begin at the age of 65.

Employee service gives rise to an obligation under a defined benefit plan even if the benefits are conditional on future employment (in other words they are not vested). Employee service before the vesting date gives rise to a constructive obligation because, at each successive balance sheet date, the amount of future service that an employee will have to render before becoming entitled to the benefit is reduced. In measuring its defined benefit obligation, an entity considers the probability that some employees may not satisfy any vesting requirements. Similarly, although certain post-employment benefits, for example, post-employment medical benefits, become payable only if a specified event occurs when an employee is no longer employed, an obligation is created when the employee renders service that will provide entitlement to the benefit if the specified event occurs. The probability that the specified event will occur affects the measurement of the obligation, but does not determine whether the obligation exists.

Examples illustrating paragraph 69

A plan pays a benefit of 100 for each year of service. The benefits vest after 10 years of service.

A benefit of 100 is attributed to each year. In each of the first 10 years, the current service cost and the present value of the obligation reflect the probability that the employee may not complete 10 years of service.

A plan pays a benefit of 100 for each year of service, excluding service before the age of 25. The benefits vest immediately.

No benefit is attributed to service before the age of 25 because service before that date does not lead to benefits (conditional or unconditional). A benefit of 100 is attributed to each subsequent year.

The obligation increases until the date when further service by the employee will lead to no material amount of further benefits. Therefore, all benefit is attributed to periods ending on or before that date. Benefit is attributed to individual accounting periods under the plan's benefit formula. However, if an employee's service in later years will lead to a materially higher level of benefit than in earlier years, an entity attributes benefit on a straight-line basis until the date when further service by the employee will lead to no material amount of further benefits. That is because the employee's service throughout the entire period will ultimately lead to benefit at that higher level.

Examples illustrating paragraph 70

A plan pays a lump-sum benefit of 1 000 that vests after 10 years of service. The plan provides no further benefit for subsequent service.

A benefit of 100 (1 000 divided by 10) is attributed to each of the first 10 years. The current service cost in each of the first 10 years reflects the probability that the employee may not complete 10 years of service. No benefit is attributed to subsequent years.

A plan pays a lump-sum retirement benefit of 2 000 to all employees who are still employed at the age of 55 after 20 years of service, or who are still employed at the age of 65, regardless of their length of service.

For employees who join before the age of 35, service first leads to benefits under the plan at the age of 35 (an employee could leave at the age of 30 and return at the age of 33, with no effect on the amount or timing of benefits). Those benefits are conditional on further service. Also, service beyond the age of 55 will lead to no material amount of further benefits. For these employees, the entity attributes benefit of 100 (2 000 divided by 20) to each year from the age of 35 to the age of 55.

For employees who join between the ages of 35 and 45, service beyond 20 years will lead to no material amount of further benefits. For these employees, the entity attributes benefit of 100 (2 000 divided by 20) to each of the first 20 years.

For an employee who joins at the age of 55, service beyond 10 years will lead to no material amount of further benefits. For this employee, the entity attributes benefit of 200 (2 000 divided by 10) to each of the first 10 years.

For all employees, the current service cost and the present value of the obligation reflect the probability that the employee may not complete the necessary period of service.

A post-employment medical plan reimburses 40 % of an employee's post-employment medical costs if the employee leaves after more than 10 and less than 20 years of service and 50 % of those costs if the employee leaves after 20 or more years of service.

Under the plan's benefit formula, the entity attributes 4 % of the present value of the expected medical costs (40 % divided by 10) to each of the first 10 years and 1 % (10 % divided by 10) to each of the second 10 years. The current service cost in each year reflects the probability that the employee may not complete the necessary period of service to earn part or all of the benefits. For employees expected to leave within 10 years, no benefit is attributed.

A post-employment medical plan reimburses 10 % of an employee's post-employment medical costs if the employee leaves after more than 10 and less than 20 years of service and 50 % of those costs if the employee leaves after 20 or more years of service.

Service in later years will lead to a materially higher level of benefit than in earlier years. Therefore, for employees expected to leave after 20 or more years, the entity attributes benefit on a straight-line basis under paragraph 68. Service beyond 20 years will lead to no material amount of further benefits. Therefore, the benefit attributed to each of the first 20 years is 2,5 % of the present value of the expected medical costs (50 % divided by 20).

For employees expected to leave between 10 and 20 years, the benefit attributed to each of the first 10 years is 1 % of the present value of the expected medical costs. For these employees, no benefit is attributed to service between the end of the 10th year and the estimated date of leaving.

For employees expected to leave within 10 years, no benefit is attributed.

Where the amount of a benefit is a constant proportion of final salary for each year of service, future salary increases will affect the amount required to settle the obligation that exists for service before the balance sheet date, but do not create an additional obligation. Therefore:

(a)

for the purpose of paragraph 67(b), salary increases do not lead to further benefits, even though the amount of the benefits is dependent on final salary; and

(b)

the amount of benefit attributed to each period is a constant proportion of the salary to which the benefit is linked.

Example illustrating paragraph 71

Employees are entitled to a benefit of 3 % of final salary for each year of service before the age of 55.

Benefit of 3 % of estimated final salary is attributed to each year up to the age of 55. This is the date when further service by the employee will lead to no material amount of further benefits under the plan. No benefit is attributed to service after that age.

Actuarial assumptions

Actuarial assumptions shall be unbiased and mutually compatible.

Actuarial assumptions are an entity's best estimates of the variables that will determine the ultimate cost of providing post-employment benefits. Actuarial assumptions comprise:

(a)

demographic assumptions about the future characteristics of current and former employees (and their dependants) who are eligible for benefits. Demographic assumptions deal with matters such as:

(i)

mortality, both during and after employment;

(ii)

rates of employee turnover, disability and early retirement;

(iii)

the proportion of plan members with dependants who will be eligible for benefits; and

(iv)

claim rates under medical plans; and

(b)

financial assumptions, dealing with items such as:

(i)

the discount rate (see paragraphs 78-82);

(ii)

future salary and benefit levels (see paragraphs 83-87);

(iii)

in the case of medical benefits, future medical costs, including, where material, the cost of administering claims and benefit payments (see paragraphs 88-91); and

(iv)

the expected rate of return on plan assets (see paragraphs 105-107).

Actuarial assumptions are unbiased if they are neither imprudent nor excessively conservative.

Actuarial assumptions are mutually compatible if they reflect the economic relationships between factors such as inflation, rates of salary increase, the return on plan assets and discount rates. For example, all assumptions which depend on a particular inflation level (such as assumptions about interest rates and salary and benefit increases) in any given future period assume the same inflation level in that period.

An entity determines the discount rate and other financial assumptions in nominal (stated) terms, unless estimates in real (inflation-adjusted) terms are more reliable, for example, in a hyperinflationary economy (see IAS 29 Financial reporting in hyperinflationary economies ), or where the benefit is index-linked and there is a deep market in index-linked bonds of the same currency and term.

Financial assumptions shall be based on market expectations, at the balance sheet date, for the period over which the obligations are to be settled.

Actuarial assumptions: discount rate

The rate used to discount post-employment benefit obligations (both funded and unfunded) shall be determined by reference to market yields at the balance sheet date on high quality corporate bonds. In countries where there is no deep market in such bonds, the market yields (at the balance sheet date) on government bonds shall be used. The currency and term of the corporate bonds or government bonds shall be consistent with the currency and estimated term of the post-employment benefit obligations.

One actuarial assumption which has a material effect is the discount rate. The discount rate reflects the time value of money but not the actuarial or investment risk. Furthermore, the discount rate does not reflect the entity-specific credit risk borne by the entity's creditors, nor does it reflect the risk that future experience may differ from actuarial assumptions.

The discount rate reflects the estimated timing of benefit payments. In practice, an entity often achieves this by applying a single weighted average discount rate that reflects the estimated timing and amount of benefit payments and the currency in which the benefits are to be paid.

In some cases, there may be no deep market in bonds with a sufficiently long maturity to match the estimated maturity of all the benefit payments. In such cases, an entity uses current market rates of the appropriate term to discount shorter term payments, and estimates the discount rate for longer maturities by extrapolating current market rates along the yield curve. The total present value of a defined benefit obligation is unlikely to be particularly sensitive to the discount rate applied to the portion of benefits that is payable beyond the final maturity of the available corporate or government bonds.

Interest cost is computed by multiplying the discount rate as determined at the start of the period by the present value of the defined benefit obligation throughout that period, taking account of any material changes in the obligation. The present value of the obligation will differ from the liability recognised in the balance sheet because the liability is recognised after deducting the fair value of any plan assets and because some actuarial gains and losses, and some past service cost, are not recognised immediately. [Appendix A illustrates the computation of interest cost, among other things.]

Actuarial assumptions: salaries, benefits and medical costs

Post-employment benefit obligations shall be measured on a basis that reflects:

(a)

estimated future salary increases;

(b)

the benefits set out in the terms of the plan (or resulting from any constructive obligation that goes beyond those terms) at the balance sheet date; and

(c)

estimated future changes in the level of any state benefits that affect the benefits payable under a defined benefit plan, if, and only if, either:

(i)

those changes were enacted before the balance sheet date; or

(ii)

past history, or other reliable evidence, indicates that those state benefits will change in some predictable manner, for example, in line with future changes in general price levels or general salary levels.

Estimates of future salary increases take account of inflation, seniority, promotion and other relevant factors, such as supply and demand in the employment market.

If the formal terms of a plan (or a constructive obligation that goes beyond those terms) require an entity to change benefits in future periods, the measurement of the obligation reflects those changes. This is the case when, for example:

(a)

the entity has a past history of increasing benefits, for example, to mitigate the effects of inflation, and there is no indication that this practice will change in the future; or

(b)

actuarial gains have already been recognised in the financial statements and the entity is obliged, by either the formal terms of a plan (or a constructive obligation that goes beyond those terms) or legislation, to use any surplus in the plan for the benefit of plan participants (see paragraph 98(c)).

Actuarial assumptions do not reflect future benefit changes that are not set out in the formal terms of the plan (or a constructive obligation) at the balance sheet date. Such changes will result in:

(a)

past service cost, to the extent that they change benefits for service before the change; and

(b)

current service cost for periods after the change, to the extent that they change benefits for service after the change.

Some post-employment benefits are linked to variables such as the level of state retirement benefits or state medical care. The measurement of such benefits reflects expected changes in such variables, based on past history and other reliable evidence.

Assumptions about medical costs shall take account of estimated future changes in the cost of medical services, resulting from both inflation and specific changes in medical costs.

Measurement of post-employment medical benefits requires assumptions about the level and frequency of future claims and the cost of meeting those claims. An entity estimates future medical costs on the basis of historical data about the entity's own experience, supplemented where necessary by historical data from other entities, insurance companies, medical providers or other sources. Estimates of future medical costs consider the effect of technological advances, changes in health care utilisation or delivery patterns and changes in the health status of plan participants.

The level and frequency of claims is particularly sensitive to the age, health status and sex of employees (and their dependants) and may be sensitive to other factors such as geographical location. Therefore, historical data is adjusted to the extent that the demographic mix of the population differs from that of the population used as a basis for the historical data. It is also adjusted where there is reliable evidence that historical trends will not continue.

Some post-employment health care plans require employees to contribute to the medical costs covered by the plan. Estimates of future medical costs take account of any such contributions, based on the terms of the plan at the balance sheet date (or based on any constructive obligation that goes beyond those terms). Changes in those employee contributions result in past service cost or, where applicable, curtailments. The cost of meeting claims may be reduced by benefits from state or other medical providers (see paragraphs 83(c) and 87).

Actuarial gains and losses

In measuring its defined benefit liability in accordance with paragraph 54, an entity shall, subject to paragraph 58A, recognise a portion (as specified in paragraph 93) of its actuarial gains and losses as income or expense if the net cumulative unrecognised actuarial gains and losses at the end of the previous reporting period exceeded the greater of:

(a)

10 % of the present value of the defined benefit obligation at that date (before deducting plan assets); and

(b)

10 % of the fair value of any plan assets at that date.

These limits shall be calculated and applied separately for each defined benefit plan.

The portion of actuarial gains and losses to be recognised for each defined benefit plan is the excess determined in accordance with paragraph 92, divided by the expected average remaining working lives of the employees participating in that plan. However, an entity may adopt any systematic method that results in faster recognition of actuarial gains and losses, provided that the same basis is applied to both gains and losses and the basis is applied consistently from period to period. An entity may apply such systematic methods to actuarial gains and losses even if they are within the limits specified in paragraph 92.

93A

If, as permitted by paragraph 93, an entity adopts a policy of recognising actuarial gains and losses in the period in which they occur, it may recognise them outside profit or loss, in accordance with paragraphs 93B-93D, providing it does so for:

(a)

all of its defined benefit plans; and

(b)

all of its actuarial gains and losses.

93B

Actuarial gains and losses recognised outside profit or loss as permitted by paragraph 93A shall be presented in a statement of changes in equity titled ‘statement of recognised income and expense’ that comprises only the items specified in paragraph 96 of IAS 1 (as revised in 2003). The entity shall not present the actuarial gains and losses in a statement of changes in equity in the columnar format referred to in paragraph 101 of IAS 1 or any other format that includes the items specified in paragraph 97 of IAS 1.

93C

An entity that recognises actuarial gains and losses in accordance with paragraph 93A shall also recognise any adjustments arising from the limit in paragraph 58(b) outside profit or loss in the statement of recognised income and expense.

93D

Actuarial gains and losses and adjustments arising from the limit in paragraph 58(b) that have been recognised directly in the statement of recognised income and expense shall be recognised immediately in retained earnings. They shall not be recognised in profit or loss in a subsequent period.

Actuarial gains and losses may result from increases or decreases in either the present value of a defined benefit obligation or the fair value of any related plan assets. Causes of actuarial gains and losses include, for example:

(a)

unexpectedly high or low rates of employee turnover, early retirement or mortality or of increases in salaries, benefits (if the formal or constructive terms of a plan provide for inflationary benefit increases) or medical costs;

(b)

the effect of changes in estimates of future employee turnover, early retirement or mortality or of increases in salaries, benefits (if the formal or constructive terms of a plan provide for inflationary benefit increases) or medical costs;

(c)

the effect of changes in the discount rate; and

(d)

differences between the actual return on plan assets and the expected return on plan assets (see paragraphs 105-107).

In the long term, actuarial gains and losses may offset one another. Therefore, estimates of post-employment benefit obligations may be viewed as a range (or ‘corridor’) around the best estimate. An entity is permitted, but not required, to recognise actuarial gains and losses that fall within that range. This standard requires an entity to recognise, as a minimum, a specified portion of the actuarial gains and losses that fall outside a ‘corridor’ of plus or minus 10 %. [Appendix A illustrates the treatment of actuarial gains and losses, among other things.] The standard also permits systematic methods of faster recognition, provided that those methods satisfy the conditions set out in paragraph 93. Such permitted methods include, for example, immediate recognition of all actuarial gains and losses, both within and outside the ‘corridor’. Paragraph 155(b)(iii) explains the need to consider any unrecognised part of the transitional liability in accounting for subsequent actuarial gains.

Past service cost

In measuring its defined benefit liability under paragraph 54, an entity shall, subject to paragraph 58A, recognise past service cost as an expense on a straight-line basis over the average period until the benefits become vested. To the extent that the benefits are already vested immediately following the introduction of, or changes to, a defined benefit plan, an entity shall recognise past service cost immediately.

Past service cost arises when an entity introduces a defined benefit plan or changes the benefits payable under an existing defined benefit plan. Such changes are in return for employee service over the period until the benefits concerned are vested. Therefore, past service cost is recognised over that period, regardless of the fact that the cost refers to employee service in previous periods. Past service cost is measured as the change in the liability resulting from the amendment (see paragraph 64).

Example illustrating paragraph 97

An entity operates a pension plan that provides a pension of 2 % of final salary for each year of service. The benefits become vested after five years of service. On 1 January 20X5 the entity improves the pension to 2,5 % of final salary for each year of service starting from 1 January 20X1. At the date of the improvement, the present value of the additional benefits for service from 1 January 20X1 to 1 January 20X5 is as follows:

Employees with more than five years' service at 1/1/X5

150

Employees with less than five years' service at 1/1/X5 (average period until vesting: three years)

120

270

The entity recognises 150 immediately because those benefits are already vested. The entity recognises 120 on a straight-line basis over three years from 1 January 20X5.

Past service cost excludes:

(a)

the effect of differences between actual and previously assumed salary increases on the obligation to pay benefits for service in prior years (there is no past service cost because actuarial assumptions allow for projected salaries);

(b)

under and over estimates of discretionary pension increases where an entity has a constructive obligation to grant such increases (there is no past service cost because actuarial assumptions allow for such increases);

(c)

estimates of benefit improvements that result from actuarial gains that have already been recognised in the financial statements if the entity is obliged, by either the formal terms of a plan (or a constructive obligation that goes beyond those terms) or legislation, to use any surplus in the plan for the benefit of plan participants, even if the benefit increase has not yet been formally awarded (the resulting increase in the obligation is an actuarial loss and not past service cost, see paragraph 85(b));

(d)

the increase in vested benefits when, in the absence of new or improved benefits, employees complete vesting requirements (there is no past service cost because the estimated cost of benefits was recognised as current service cost as the service was rendered); and

(e)

the effect of plan amendments that reduce benefits for future service (a curtailment).

An entity establishes the amortisation schedule for past service cost when the benefits are introduced or changed. It would be impracticable to maintain the detailed records needed to identify and implement subsequent changes in that amortisation schedule. Moreover, the effect is likely to be material only where there is a curtailment or settlement. Therefore, an entity amends the amortisation schedule for past service cost only if there is a curtailment or settlement.

100

Where an entity reduces benefits payable under an existing defined benefit plan, the resulting reduction in the defined benefit liability is recognised as (negative) past service cost over the average period until the reduced portion of the benefits becomes vested.

101

Where an entity reduces certain benefits payable under an existing defined benefit plan and, at the same time, increases other benefits payable under the plan for the same employees, the entity treats the change as a single net change.

Recognition and measurement: plan assets

Fair value of plan assets

102

The fair value of any plan assets is deducted in determining the amount recognised in the balance sheet under paragraph 54. When no market price is available, the fair value of plan assets is estimated; for example, by discounting expected future cash flows using a discount rate that reflects both the risk associated with the plan assets and the maturity or expected disposal date of those assets (or, if they have no maturity, the expected period until the settlement of the related obligation).

103

Plan assets exclude unpaid contributions due from the reporting entity to the fund, as well as any non-transferable financial instruments issued by the entity and held by the fund. Plan assets are reduced by any liabilities of the fund that do not relate to employee benefits, for example, trade and other payables and liabilities resulting from derivative financial instruments.

104

Where plan assets include qualifying insurance policies that exactly match the amount and timing of some or all of the benefits payable under the plan, the fair value of those insurance policies is deemed to be the present value of the related obligations, as described in paragraph 54 (subject to any reduction required if the amounts receivable under the insurance policies are not recoverable in full).

Reimbursements

104A

When, and only when, it is virtually certain that another party will reimburse some or all of the expenditure required to settle a defined benefit obligation, an entity shall recognise its right to reimbursement as a separate asset. The entity shall measure the asset at fair value. In all other respects, an entity shall treat that asset in the same way as plan assets. In the income statement, the expense relating to a defined benefit plan may be presented net of the amount recognised for a reimbursement.

104B

Sometimes, an entity is able to look to another party, such as an insurer, to pay part or all of the expenditure required to settle a defined benefit obligation. Qualifying insurance policies, as defined in paragraph 7, are plan assets. An entity accounts for qualifying insurance policies in the same way as for all other plan assets and paragraph 104A does not apply (see paragraphs 39-42 and 104).

104C

When an insurance policy is not a qualifying insurance policy, that insurance policy is not a plan asset. Paragraph 104A deals with such cases: the entity recognises its right to reimbursement under the insurance policy as a separate asset, rather than as a deduction in determining the defined benefit liability recognised under paragraph 54; in all other respects, the entity treats that asset in the same way as plan assets. In particular, the defined benefit liability recognised under paragraph 54 is increased (reduced) to the extent that net cumulative actuarial gains (losses) on the defined benefit obligation and on the related reimbursement right remain unrecognised under paragraphs 92 and 93. Paragraph 120A(f)(iv) requires the entity to disclose a brief description of the link between the reimbursement right and the related obligation.

Example illustrating paragraphs 104A-104C

Present value of obligation

1 241

Unrecognised actuarial gains

Liability recognised in balance sheet

1 258

Rights under insurance policies that exactly match the amount and timing of some of the benefits payable under the plan. Those benefits have a present value of 1 092 .

1 092

The unrecognised actuarial gains of 17 are the net cumulative actuarial gains on the obligation and on the reimbursement rights.

104D

If the right to reimbursement arises under an insurance policy that exactly matches the amount and timing of some or all of the benefits payable under a defined benefit plan, the fair value of the reimbursement right is deemed to be the present value of the related obligation, as described in paragraph 54 (subject to any reduction required if the reimbursement is not recoverable in full).

Return on plan assets

105

The expected return on plan assets is one component of the expense recognised in the income statement. The difference between the expected return on plan assets and the actual return on plan assets is an actuarial gain or loss; it is included with the actuarial gains and losses on the defined benefit obligation in determining the net amount that is compared with the limits of the 10 % ‘corridor’ specified in paragraph 92.

106

The expected return on plan assets is based on market expectations, at the beginning of the period, for returns over the entire life of the related obligation. The expected return on plan assets reflects changes in the fair value of plan assets held during the period as a result of actual contributions paid into the fund and actual benefits paid out of the fund.

Example illustrating paragraph 106

At 1 January 20X1, the fair value of plan assets was 10 000 and net cumulative unrecognised actuarial gains were 760. On 30 June 20X1, the plan paid benefits of 1 900 and received contributions of 4 900. At 31 December 20X1, the fair value of plan assets was 15 000 and the present value of the defined benefit obligation was 14 792. Actuarial losses on the obligation for 20X1 were 60.

At 1 January 20X1, the reporting entity made the following estimates, based on market prices at that date:

Interest and dividend income, after tax payable by the fund

9,25

Realised and unrealised gains on plan assets (after tax)

2,00

Administration costs

(1,00 )

Expected rate of return

10,25

For 20X1, the expected and actual return on plan assets are as follows:

Return on 10 000 held for 12 months at 10,25 %

1 025

Return on 3 000 held for six months at 5 % (equivalent to 10,25 % annually, compounded every six months)

150

Expected return on plan assets for 20X1

1 175

Fair value of plan assets at 31 December 20X1

15 000

Less fair value of plan assets at 1 January 20X1

(10 000 )

Less contributions received

(4 900 )

Add benefits paid

1 900

Actual return on plan assets

2 000

The difference between the expected return on plan assets (1 175) and the actual return on plan assets (2 000) is an actuarial gain of 825. Therefore, the cumulative net unrecognised actuarial gains are 1 525 (760 plus 825 less 60). Under paragraph 92, the limits of the corridor are set at 1 500 (greater of: (i) 10 % of 15 000 and (ii) 10 % of 14 792). In the following year (20X2), the entity recognises in the income statement an actuarial gain of 25 (1 525 less 1 500) divided by the expected average remaining working life of the employees concerned.

The expected return on plan assets for 20X2 will be based on market expectations at 1/1/X2 for returns over the entire life of the obligation.

107

In determining the expected and actual return on plan assets, an entity deducts expected administration costs, other than those included in the actuarial assumptions used to measure the obligation.

Business combinations

108

In a business combination, an entity recognises assets and liabilities arising from post-employment benefits at the present value of the obligation less the fair value of any plan assets (see IFRS 3 Business combinations ). The present value of the obligation includes all of the following, even if the acquiree had not yet recognised them at the acquisition date:

(a)

actuarial gains and losses that arose before the acquisition date (whether or not they fell inside the 10 % ‘corridor’);

(b)

past service cost that arose from benefit changes, or the introduction of a plan, before the acquisition date; and

(c)

amounts that, under the transitional provisions of paragraph 155(b), the acquiree had not recognised.

Curtailments and settlements

109

An entity shall recognise gains or losses on the curtailment or settlement of a defined benefit plan when the curtailment or settlement occurs. The gain or loss on a curtailment or settlement shall comprise:

(a)

any resulting change in the present value of the defined benefit obligation;

(b)

any resulting change in the fair value of the plan assets;

(c)

any related actuarial gains and losses and past service cost that, under paragraphs 92 and 96, had not previously been recognised.

110

Before determining the effect of a curtailment or settlement, an entity shall remeasure the obligation (and the related plan assets, if any) using current actuarial assumptions (including current market interest rates and other current market prices).

111

A curtailment occurs when an entity either:

(a)

is demonstrably committed to make a material reduction in the number of employees covered by a plan; or

(b)

amends the terms of a defined benefit plan such that a material element of future service by current employees will no longer qualify for benefits, or will qualify only for reduced benefits.

A curtailment may arise from an isolated event, such as the closing of a plant, discontinuance of an operation or termination or suspension of a plan. An event is material enough to qualify as a curtailment if the recognition of a curtailment gain or loss would have a material effect on the financial statements. Curtailments are often linked with a restructuring. Therefore, an entity accounts for a curtailment at the same time as for a related restructuring.

112

A settlement occurs when an entity enters into a transaction that eliminates all further legal or constructive obligation for part or all of the benefits provided under a defined benefit plan, for example, when a lump-sum cash payment is made to, or on behalf of, plan participants in exchange for their rights to receive specified post-employment benefits.

113

In some cases, an entity acquires an insurance policy to fund some or all of the employee benefits relating to employee service in the current and prior periods. The acquisition of such a policy is not a settlement if the entity retains a legal or constructive obligation (see paragraph 39) to pay further amounts if the insurer does not pay the employee benefits specified in the insurance policy. Paragraphs 104A-104D deal with the recognition and measurement of reimbursement rights under insurance policies that are not plan assets.

114

A settlement occurs together with a curtailment if a plan is terminated such that the obligation is settled and the plan ceases to exist. However, the termination of a plan is not a curtailment or settlement if the plan is replaced by a new plan that offers benefits that are, in substance, identical.

115

Where a curtailment relates to only some of the employees covered by a plan, or where only part of an obligation is settled, the gain or loss includes a proportionate share of the previously unrecognised past service cost and actuarial gains and losses (and of transitional amounts remaining unrecognised under paragraph 155(b)). The proportionate share is determined on the basis of the present value of the obligations before and after the curtailment or settlement, unless another basis is more rational in the circumstances. For example, it may be appropriate to apply any gain arising on a curtailment or settlement of the same plan to first eliminate any unrecognised past service cost relating to the same plan.

Example illustrating paragraph 115

An entity discontinues an operating segment and employees of the discontinued segment will earn no further benefits. This is a curtailment without a settlement. Using current actuarial assumptions (including current market interest rates and other current market prices) immediately before the curtailment, the entity has a defined benefit obligation with a net present value of 1 000, plan assets with a fair value of 820 and net cumulative unrecognised actuarial gains of 50. The entity had first adopted the standard one year before. This increased the net liability by 100, which the entity chose to recognise over five years (see paragraph 155(b)). The curtailment reduces the net present value of the obligation by 100 to 900.

Of the previously unrecognised actuarial gains and transitional amounts, 10 % (100/1 000) relates to the part of the obligation that was eliminated through the curtailment. Therefore, the effect of the curtailment is as follows:

Before curtailment

Curtailment gain

After curtailment

Net present value of obligation

1 000

(100)

900

Fair value of plan assets

(820)

—

(820)

180

(100)

Unrecognised actuarial gains

(5)

Unrecognised transitional amount

(100 × 4/5)

(80)

(72)

Net liability recognised in balance sheet

150

(97)

Presentation

Offset

116

An entity shall offset an asset relating to one plan against a liability relating to another plan when, and only when, the entity:

(a)

has a legally enforceable right to use a surplus in one plan to settle obligations under the other plan; and

(b)

intends either to settle the obligations on a net basis, or to realise the surplus in one plan and settle its obligation under the other plan simultaneously.

117

The offsetting criteria are similar to those established for financial instruments in IAS 32 Financial instruments: presentation .

Current/non-current distinction

118

Some entities distinguish current assets and liabilities from non-current assets and liabilities. This standard does not specify whether an entity should distinguish current and non-current portions of assets and liabilities arising from post-employment benefits.

Financial components of post-employment benefit costs

119

This standard does not specify whether an entity should present current service cost, interest cost and the expected return on plan assets as components of a single item of income or expense on the face of the income statement.

Disclosure

120

An entity shall disclose information that enables users of financial statements to evaluate the nature of its defined benefit plans and the financial effects of changes in those plans during the period.

120A

An entity shall disclose the following information about defined benefit plans:

(a)

the entity's accounting policy for recognising actuarial gains and losses;

(b)

a general description of the type of plan;

(c)

a reconciliation of opening and closing balances of the present value of the defined benefit obligation showing separately, if applicable, the effects during the period attributable to each of the following:

(i)

current service cost;

(ii)

interest cost;

(iii)

contributions by plan participants;

(iv)

actuarial gains and losses;

(v)

foreign currency exchange rate changes on plans measured in a currency different from the entity's presentation currency;

(vi)

benefits paid;

(vii)

past service cost;

(viii)

business combinations;

(ix)

curtailments; and

(x)

settlements;

(d)

an analysis of the defined benefit obligation into amounts arising from plans that are wholly unfunded and amounts arising from plans that are wholly or partly funded;

(e)

a reconciliation of the opening and closing balances of the fair value of plan assets and of the opening and closing balances of any reimbursement right recognised as an asset in accordance with paragraph 104A showing separately, if applicable, the effects during the period attributable to each of the following:

(i)

expected return on plan assets;

(ii)

actuarial gains and losses;

(iii)

foreign currency exchange rate changes on plans measured in a currency different from the entity's presentation currency;

(iv)

contributions by the employer;

(v)

contributions by plan participants;

(vi)

benefits paid;

(vii)

business combinations; and

(viii)

settlements;

(f)

a reconciliation of the present value of the defined benefit obligation in (c) and the fair value of the plan assets in (e) to the assets and liabilities recognised in the balance sheet, showing at least:

(i)

the net actuarial gains or losses not recognised in the balance sheet (see paragraph 92);

(ii)

the past service cost not recognised in the balance sheet (see paragraph 96);

(iii)

any amount not recognised as an asset, because of the limit in paragraph 58(b);

(iv)

the fair value at the balance sheet date of any reimbursement right recognised as an asset in accordance with paragraph 104A (with a brief description of the link between the reimbursement right and the related obligation); and

(v)

the other amounts recognised in the balance sheet;

(g)

the total expense recognised in profit or loss for each of the following, and the line item(s) in which they are included:

(i)

current service cost;

(ii)

interest cost;

(iii)

expected return on plan assets;

(iv)

expected return on any reimbursement right recognised as an asset in accordance with paragraph 104A;

(v)

actuarial gains and losses;

(vi)

past service cost;

(vii)

the effect of any curtailment or settlement; and

(viii)

the effect of the limit in paragraph 58(b);

(h)

the total amount recognised in the statement of recognised income and expense for each of the following:

(i)

actuarial gains and losses; and

(ii)

the effect of the limit in paragraph 58(b);

(i)

for entities that recognise actuarial gains and losses in the statement of recognised income and expense in accordance with paragraph 93A, the cumulative amount of actuarial gains and losses recognised in the statement of recognised income and expense;

(j)

for each major category of plan assets, which shall include, but is not limited to, equity instruments, debt instruments, property, and all other assets, the percentage or amount that each major category constitutes of the fair value of the total plan assets;

(k)

the amounts included in the fair value of plan assets for:

(i)

each category of the entity's own financial instruments; and

(ii)

any property occupied by, or other assets used by, the entity;

(l)

a narrative description of the basis used to determine the overall expected rate of return on assets, including the effect of the major categories of plan assets;

(m)

the actual return on plan assets, as well as the actual return on any reimbursement right recognised as an asset in accordance with paragraph 104A;

(n)

the principal actuarial assumptions used as at the balance sheet date, including, when applicable:

(i)

the discount rates;

(ii)

the expected rates of return on any plan assets for the periods presented in the financial statements;

(iii)

the expected rates of return for the periods presented in the financial statements on any reimbursement right recognised as an asset in accordance with paragraph 104A;

(iv)

the expected rates of salary increases (and of changes in an index or other variable specified in the formal or constructive terms of a plan as the basis for future benefit increases);

(v)

medical cost trend rates; and

(vi)

any other material actuarial assumptions used.

An entity shall disclose each actuarial assumption in absolute terms (for example, as an absolute percentage) and not just as a margin between different percentages or other variables;

(o)

the effect of an increase of one percentage point and the effect of a decrease of one percentage point in the assumed medical cost trend rates on:

(i)

the aggregate of the current service cost and interest cost components of net periodic post-employment medical costs; and

(ii)

the accumulated post-employment benefit obligation for medical costs.

For the purposes of this disclosure, all other assumptions shall be held constant. For plans operating in a high inflation environment, the disclosure shall be the effect of a percentage increase or decrease in the assumed medical cost trend rate of a significance similar to one percentage point in a low inflation environment;

(p)

the amounts for the current annual period and previous four annual periods of:

(i)

the present value of the defined benefit obligation, the fair value of the plan assets and the surplus or deficit in the plan; and

(ii)

the experience adjustments arising on:

(A)

the plan liabilities expressed either as (1) an amount or (2) a percentage of the plan liabilities at the balance sheet date; and

(B)

the plan assets expressed either as (1) an amount or (2) a percentage of the plan assets at the balance sheet date;

(q)

the employer's best estimate, as soon as it can reasonably be determined, of contributions expected to be paid to the plan during the annual period beginning after the balance sheet date.

121

Paragraph 120A(b) requires a general description of the type of plan. Such a description distinguishes, for example, flat salary pension plans from final salary pension plans and from post-employment medical plans. The description of the plan shall include informal practices that give rise to constructive obligations included in the measurement of the defined benefit obligation in accordance with paragraph 52. Further detail is not required.

122

When an entity has more than one defined benefit plan, disclosures may be made in total, separately for each plan, or in such groupings as are considered to be the most useful. It may be useful to distinguish groupings by criteria such as the following:

(a)

the geographical location of the plans, for example, by distinguishing domestic plans from foreign plans; or

(b)

whether plans are subject to materially different risks, for example, by distinguishing flat salary pension plans from final salary pension plans and from post-employment medical plans.

When an entity provides disclosures in total for a grouping of plans, such disclosures are provided in the form of weighted averages or of relatively narrow ranges.

123

Paragraph 30 requires additional disclosures about multi-employer defined benefit plans that are treated as if they were defined contribution plans.

124

Where required by IAS 24 an entity discloses information about:

(a)

related party transactions with post-employment benefit plans; and

(b)

post-employment benefits for key management personnel.

125

Where required by IAS 37 an entity discloses information about contingent liabilities arising from post-employment benefit obligations.

OTHER LONG-TERM EMPLOYEE BENEFITS

126

Other long-term employee benefits include, for example:

(a)

long-term compensated absences such as long-service or sabbatical leave;

(b)

jubilee or other long-service benefits;

(c)

long-term disability benefits;

(d)

profit-sharing and bonuses payable 12 months or more after the end of the period in which the employees render the related service; and

(e)

deferred compensation paid 12 months or more after the end of the period in which it is earned.

127

The measurement of other long-term employee benefits is not usually subject to the same degree of uncertainty as the measurement of post-employment benefits. Furthermore, the introduction of, or changes to, other long-term employee benefits rarely causes a material amount of past service cost. For these reasons, this standard requires a simplified method of accounting for other long-term employee benefits. This method differs from the accounting required for post-employment benefits as follows:

(a)

actuarial gains and losses are recognised immediately and no ‘corridor’ is applied; and

(b)

all past service cost is recognised immediately.

Recognition and measurement

128

The amount recognised as a liability for other long-term employee benefits shall be the net total of the following amounts:

(a)

the present value of the defined benefit obligation at the balance sheet date (see paragraph 64);

(b)

minus the fair value at the balance sheet date of plan assets (if any) out of which the obligations are to be settled directly (see paragraphs 102-104).

In measuring the liability, an entity shall apply paragraphs 49-91, excluding paragraphs 54 and 61. An entity shall apply paragraph 104A in recognising and measuring any reimbursement right.

129

For other long-term employee benefits, an entity shall recognise the net total of the following amounts as expense or (subject to paragraph 58) income, except to the extent that another standard requires or permits their inclusion in the cost of an asset:

(a)

current service cost (see paragraphs 63-91);

(b)

interest cost (see paragraph 82);

(c)

the expected return on any plan assets (see paragraphs 105-107) and on any reimbursement right recognised as an asset (see paragraph 104A);

(d)

actuarial gains and losses, which shall all be recognised immediately;

(e)

past service cost, which shall all be recognised immediately; and

(f)

the effect of any curtailments or settlements (see paragraphs 109 and 110).

130

One form of other long-term employee benefit is long-term disability benefit. If the level of benefit depends on the length of service, an obligation arises when the service is rendered. Measurement of that obligation reflects the probability that payment will be required and the length of time for which payment is expected to be made. If the level of benefit is the same for any disabled employee regardless of years of service, the expected cost of those benefits is recognised when an event occurs that causes a long-term disability.

Disclosure

131

Although this standard does not require specific disclosures about other long-term employee benefits, other standards may require disclosures, for example, where the expense resulting from such benefits is material and so would require disclosure in accordance with IAS 1. When required by IAS 24, an entity discloses information about other long-term employee benefits for key management personnel.

TERMINATION BENEFITS

132

This standard deals with termination benefits separately from other employee benefits because the event which gives rise to an obligation is the termination rather than employee service.

Recognition

133

An entity shall recognise termination benefits as a liability and an expense when, and only when, the entity is demonstrably committed to either:

(a)

terminate the employment of an employee or group of employees before the normal retirement date; or

(b)

provide termination benefits as a result of an offer made in order to encourage voluntary redundancy.

134

An entity is demonstrably committed to a termination when, and only when, the entity has a detailed formal plan for the termination and is without realistic possibility of withdrawal. The detailed plan shall include, as a minimum:

(a)

the location, function, and approximate number of employees whose services are to be terminated;

(b)

the termination benefits for each job classification or function; and

(c)

the time at which the plan will be implemented. Implementation shall begin as soon as possible and the period of time to complete implementation shall be such that material changes to the plan are not likely.

135

An entity may be committed, by legislation, by contractual or other agreements with employees or their representatives or by a constructive obligation based on business practice, custom or a desire to act equitably, to make payments (or provide other benefits) to employees when it terminates their employment. Such payments are termination benefits. Termination benefits are typically lump-sum payments, but sometimes also include:

(a)

enhancement of retirement benefits or of other post-employment benefits, either indirectly through an employee benefit plan or directly; and

(b)

salary until the end of a specified notice period if the employee renders no further service that provides economic benefits to the entity.

136

Some employee benefits are payable regardless of the reason for the employee's departure. The payment of such benefits is certain (subject to any vesting or minimum service requirements) but the timing of their payment is uncertain. Although such benefits are described in some countries as termination indemnities, or termination gratuities, they are post-employment benefits, rather than termination benefits and an entity accounts for them as post-employment benefits. Some entities provide a lower level of benefit for voluntary termination at the request of the employee (in substance, a post-employment benefit) than for involuntary termination at the request of the entity. The additional benefit payable on involuntary termination is a termination benefit.

137

Termination benefits do not provide an entity with future economic benefits and are recognised as an expense immediately.

138

Where an entity recognises termination benefits, the entity may also have to account for a curtailment of retirement benefits or other employee benefits (see paragraph 109).

Measurement

139

Where termination benefits fall due more than 12 months after the balance sheet date, they shall be discounted using the discount rate specified in paragraph 78.

140

In the case of an offer made to encourage voluntary redundancy, the measurement of termination benefits shall be based on the number of employees expected to accept the offer.

Disclosure

141

Where there is uncertainty about the number of employees who will accept an offer of termination benefits, a contingent liability exists. As required by IAS 37 an entity discloses information about the contingent liability unless the possibility of an outflow in settlement is remote.

142

As required by IAS 1, an entity discloses the nature and amount of an expense if it is material. Termination benefits may result in an expense needing disclosure in order to comply with this requirement.

143

Where required by IAS 24 an entity discloses information about termination benefits for key management personnel.

144-152

[Deleted]

TRANSITIONAL PROVISIONS

153

This section specifies the transitional treatment for defined benefit plans. Where an entity first adopts this standard for other employee benefits, the entity applies IAS 8 Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and errors .

154

On first adopting this standard, an entity shall determine its transitional liability for defined benefit plans at that date as:

(a)

the present value of the obligation (see paragraph 64) at the date of adoption;

(b)

minus the fair value, at the date of adoption, of plan assets (if any) out of which the obligations are to be settled directly (see paragraphs 102-104);

(c)

minus any past service cost that, under paragraph 96, shall be recognised in later periods.

155

If the transitional liability is more than the liability that would have been recognised at the same date under the entity's previous accounting policy, the entity shall make an irrevocable choice to recognise that increase as part of its defined benefit liability under paragraph 54:

(a)

immediately, under IAS 8; or

(b)

as an expense on a straight-line basis over up to five years from the date of adoption. If an entity chooses (b), the entity shall:

(i)

apply the limit described in paragraph 58(b) in measuring any asset recognised in the balance sheet;

(ii)

disclose at each balance sheet date: (1) the amount of the increase that remains unrecognised; and (2) the amount recognised in the current period;

(iii)

limit the recognition of subsequent actuarial gains (but not negative past service cost) as follows. If an actuarial gain is to be recognised under paragraphs 92 and 93, an entity shall recognise that actuarial gain only to the extent that the net cumulative unrecognised actuarial gains (before recognition of that actuarial gain) exceed the unrecognised part of the transitional liability; and

(iv)

include the related part of the unrecognised transitional liability in determining any subsequent gain or loss on settlement or curtailment.

If the transitional liability is less than the liability that would have been recognised at the same date under the entity's previous accounting policy, the entity shall recognise that decrease immediately under IAS 8.

156

On the initial adoption of the standard, the effect of the change in accounting policy includes all actuarial gains and losses that arose in earlier periods even if they fall inside the 10 % ‘corridor’ specified in paragraph 92.

Example illustrating paragraphs 154 to 156

At 31 December 1998, an entity's balance sheet includes a pension liability of 100. The entity adopts the standard as of 1 January 1999, when the present value of the obligation under the standard is 1 300 and the fair value of plan assets is 1 000. On 1 January 1993, the entity had improved pensions (cost for non-vested benefits: 160; and average remaining period at that date until vesting: 10 years).

The transitional effect is as follows:

Present value of the obligation

1 300

Fair value of plan assets

(1 000 )

Less: past service cost to be recognised in later periods (160 × 4/10)

(64)

Transitional liability

236

Liability already recognised

100

Increase in liability

136

The entity may choose to recognise the increase of 136 either immediately or over up to 5 years. The choice is irrevocable.

At 31 December 1999, the present value of the obligation under the standard is 1 400 and the fair value of plan assets is 1 050. Net cumulative unrecognised actuarial gains since the date of adopting the standard are 120. The expected average remaining working life of the employees participating in the plan was eight years. The entity has adopted a policy of recognising all actuarial gains and losses immediately, as permitted by paragraph 93.

The effect of the limit in paragraph 155(b)(iii) is as follows.

Net cumulative unrecognised actuarial gains

120

Unrecognised part of transitional liability (136 × 4/5)

(109)

Maximum gain to be recognised (paragraph 155(b)(iii))

EFFECTIVE DATE

157

This standard becomes operative for financial statements covering periods beginning on or after 1 January 1999, except as specified in paragraphs 159-159C. Earlier adoption is encouraged. If an entity applies this standard to retirement benefit costs for financial statements covering periods beginning before 1 January 1999, the entity shall disclose the fact that it has applied this standard instead of IAS 19 Retirement benefit costs approved in 1993.

158

This standard supersedes IAS 19 Retirement benefit costs approved in 1993.

159

The following become operative for annual financial statements ( 3 ) covering periods beginning on or after 1 January 2001:

(a)

the revised definition of plan assets in paragraph 7 and the related definitions of assets held by a long-term employee benefit fund and qualifying insurance policy; and

(b)

the recognition and measurement requirements for reimbursements in paragraphs 104A, 128 and 129 and related disclosures in paragraphs 120A(f)(iv), 120A(g)(iv), 120A(m) and 120A(n)(iii).

Earlier adoption is encouraged. If earlier adoption affects the financial statements, an entity shall disclose that fact.

159A

The amendment in paragraph 58A becomes operative for annual financial statements covering periods ending on or after 31 May 2002. Earlier adoption is encouraged. If earlier adoption affects the financial statements, an entity shall disclose that fact.

159B

An entity shall apply the amendments in paragraphs 32A, 34-34B, 61 and 120-121 for annual periods beginning on or after 1 January 2006. Earlier application is encouraged. If an entity applies these amendments for a period beginning before 1 January 2006, it shall disclose that fact.

159C

The option in paragraphs 93A-93D may be used for annual periods ending on or after 16 December 2004. An entity using the option for annual periods beginning before 1 January 2006 shall also apply the amendments in paragraphs 32A, 34-34B, 61 and 120-121.

160

IAS 8 applies when an entity changes its accounting policies to reflect the changes specified in paragraphs 159-159C. In applying those changes retrospectively, as required by IAS 8, the entity treats those changes as if they had been applied at the same time as the rest of this standard, except that an entity may disclose the amounts required by paragraph 120A(p) as the amounts are determined for each annual period prospectively from the first annual period presented in the financial statements in which the entity first applies the amendments in paragraph 120A.

( 1 ) A qualifying insurance policy is not necessarily an insurance contract, as defined in IFRS 4 Insurance contracts .

( 2 ) A surplus is an excess of the fair value of the plan assets over the present value of the defined benefit obligation.

( 3 ) Paragraphs 159 and 159A refer to ‘annual financial statements’ in line with more explicit language for writing effective dates adopted in 1998. Paragraph 157 refers to ‘financial statements’.

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 20

Accounting for government grants and disclosure of government assistance

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied in accounting for, and in the disclosure of, government grants and in the disclosure of other forms of government assistance.

This standard does not deal with:

(a)

the special problems arising in accounting for government grants in financial statements reflecting the effects of changing prices or in supplementary information of a similar nature;

(b)

government assistance that is provided for an entity in the form of benefits that are available in determining taxable income or are determined or limited on the basis of income tax liability (such as income tax holidays, investment tax credits, accelerated depreciation allowances and reduced income tax rates);

(c)

government participation in the ownership of the entity;

(d)

government grants covered by IAS 41 Agriculture .

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

Government refers to government, government agencies and similar bodies whether local, national or international.

Government assistance is action by government designed to provide an economic benefit specific to an entity or range of entities qualifying under certain criteria. Government assistance for the purpose of this standard does not include benefits provided only indirectly through action affecting general trading conditions, such as the provision of infrastructure in development areas or the imposition of trading constraints on competitors.

Government grants are assistance by government in the form of transfers of resources to an entity in return for past or future compliance with certain conditions relating to the operating activities of the entity. They exclude those forms of government assistance which cannot reasonably have a value placed upon them and transactions with government which cannot be distinguished from the normal trading transactions of the entity ( 1 ) .

Grants related to assets are government grants whose primary condition is that an entity qualifying for them should purchase, construct or otherwise acquire long-term assets. Subsidiary conditions may also be attached restricting the type or location of the assets or the periods during which they are to be acquired or held.

Grants related to income are government grants other than those related to assets.

Forgivable loans are loans which the lender undertakes to waive repayment of under certain prescribed conditions.

Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged between a knowledgeable, willing buyer and a knowledgeable, willing seller in an arm's length transaction.

Government assistance takes many forms varying both in the nature of the assistance given and in the conditions which are usually attached to it. The purpose of the assistance may be to encourage an entity to embark on a course of action which it would not normally have taken if the assistance was not provided.

The receipt of government assistance by an entity may be significant for the preparation of the financial statements for two reasons. Firstly, if resources have been transferred, an appropriate method of accounting for the transfer must be found. Secondly, it is desirable to give an indication of the extent to which the entity has benefited from such assistance during the reporting period. This facilitates comparison of an entity's financial statements with those of prior periods and with those of other entities.

Government grants are sometimes called by other names such as subsidies, subventions, or premiums.

GOVERNMENT GRANTS

Government grants, including non-monetary grants at fair value, shall not be recognised until there is reasonable assurance that:

(a)

the entity will comply with the conditions attaching to them; and

(b)

the grants will be received.

A government grant is not recognised until there is reasonable assurance that the entity will comply with the conditions attaching to it, and that the grant will be received. Receipt of a grant does not of itself provide conclusive evidence that the conditions attaching to the grant have been or will be fulfilled.

The manner in which a grant is received does not affect the accounting method to be adopted in regard to the grant. Thus a grant is accounted for in the same manner whether it is received in cash or as a reduction of a liability to the government.

A forgivable loan from government is treated as a government grant when there is reasonable assurance that the entity will meet the terms for forgiveness of the loan.

Once a government grant is recognised, any related contingent liability or contingent asset is treated in accordance with IAS 37 Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets .

Government grants shall be recognised as income over the periods necessary to match them with the related costs which they are intended to compensate, on a systematic basis. They shall not be credited directly to shareholders' interests.

Two broad approaches may be found to the accounting treatment of government grants: the capital approach, under which a grant is credited directly to shareholders' interests, and the income approach, under which a grant is taken to income over one or more periods.

Those in support of the capital approach argue as follows:

(a)

government grants are a financing device and should be dealt with as such in the balance sheet rather than be passed through the income statement to offset the items of expense which they finance. Since no repayment is expected, they should be credited directly to shareholders' interests; and

(b)

it is inappropriate to recognise government grants in the income statement, since they are not earned but represent an incentive provided by government without related costs.

Arguments in support of the income approach are as follows:

(a)

since government grants are receipts from a source other than shareholders, they should not be credited directly to shareholders' interests but should be recognised as income in appropriate periods;

(b)

government grants are rarely gratuitous. The entity earns them through compliance with their conditions and meeting the envisaged obligations. They should therefore be recognised as income and matched with the associated costs which the grant is intended to compensate; and

(c)

as income and other taxes are charges against income, it is logical to deal also with government grants, which are an extension of fiscal policies, in the income statement.

It is fundamental to the income approach that government grants be recognised as income on a systematic and rational basis over the periods necessary to match them with the related costs. Income recognition of government grants on a receipts basis is not in accordance with the accrual accounting assumption (see IAS 1 Presentation of financial statements ) and would only be acceptable if no basis existed for allocating a grant to periods other than the one in which it was received.

In most cases the periods over which an entity recognises the costs or expenses related to a government grant are readily ascertainable and thus grants in recognition of specific expenses are recognised as income in the same period as the relevant expense. Similarly, grants related to depreciable assets are usually recognised as income over the periods and in the proportions in which depreciation on those assets is charged.

Grants related to non-depreciable assets may also require the fulfilment of certain obligations and would then be recognised as income over the periods which bear the cost of meeting the obligations. As an example, a grant of land may be conditional upon the erection of a building on the site and it may be appropriate to recognise it as income over the life of the building.

Grants are sometimes received as part of a package of financial or fiscal aids to which a number of conditions are attached. In such cases, care is needed in identifying the conditions giving rise to costs and expenses which determine the periods over which the grant will be earned. It may be appropriate to allocate part of a grant on one basis and part on another.

A government grant that becomes receivable as compensation for expenses or losses already incurred or for the purpose of giving immediate financial support to the entity with no future related costs shall be recognised as income of the period in which it becomes receivable.

In some circumstances, a government grant may be awarded for the purpose of giving immediate financial support to an entity rather than as an incentive to undertake specific expenditures. Such grants may be confined to an individual entity and may not be available to a whole class of beneficiaries. These circumstances may warrant recognising a grant as income in the period in which the entity qualifies to receive it, with disclosure to ensure that its effect is clearly understood.

A government grant may become receivable by an entity as compensation for expenses or losses incurred in a previous period. Such a grant is recognised as income of the period in which it becomes receivable, with disclosure to ensure that its effect is clearly understood.

Non-monetary government grants

A government grant may take the form of a transfer of a non-monetary asset, such as land or other resources, for the use of the entity. In these circumstances it is usual to assess the fair value of the non-monetary asset and to account for both grant and asset at that fair value. An alternative course that is sometimes followed is to record both asset and grant at a nominal amount.

Presentation of grants related to assets

Government grants related to assets, including non-monetary grants at fair value, shall be presented in the balance sheet either by setting up the grant as deferred income or by deducting the grant in arriving at the carrying amount of the asset.

Two methods of presentation in financial statements of grants (or the appropriate portions of grants) related to assets are regarded as acceptable alternatives.

One method sets up the grant as deferred income which is recognised as income on a systematic and rational basis over the useful life of the asset.

The other method deducts the grant in arriving at the carrying amount of the asset. The grant is recognised as income over the life of a depreciable asset by way of a reduced depreciation charge.

The purchase of assets and the receipt of related grants can cause major movements in the cash flow of an entity. For this reason and in order to show the gross investment in assets, such movements are often disclosed as separate items in the cash-flow statement regardless of whether or not the grant is deducted from the related asset for the purpose of balance sheet presentation.

Presentation of grants related to income

Grants related to income are sometimes presented as a credit in the income statement, either separately or under a general heading such as ‘Other income’; alternatively, they are deducted in reporting the related expense.

Supporters of the first method claim that it is inappropriate to net income and expense items and that separation of the grant from the expense facilitates comparison with other expenses not affected by a grant. For the second method it is argued that the expenses might well not have been incurred by the entity if the grant had not been available and presentation of the expense without offsetting the grant may therefore be misleading.

Both methods are regarded as acceptable for the presentation of grants related to income. Disclosure of the grant may be necessary for a proper understanding of the financial statements. Disclosure of the effect of the grants on any item of income or expense which is required to be separately disclosed is usually appropriate.

Repayment of government grants

A government grant that becomes repayable shall be accounted for as a revision to an accounting estimate (see IAS 8 Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and errors ). Repayment of a grant related to income shall be applied first against any unamortised deferred credit set up in respect of the grant. To the extent that the repayment exceeds any such deferred credit, or where no deferred credit exists, the repayment shall be recognised immediately as an expense. Repayment of a grant related to an asset shall be recorded by increasing the carrying amount of the asset or reducing the deferred income balance by the amount repayable. The cumulative additional depreciation that would have been recognised to date as an expense in the absence of the grant shall be recognised immediately as an expense.

Circumstances giving rise to repayment of a grant related to an asset may require consideration to be given to the possible impairment of the new carrying amount of the asset.

GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE

Excluded from the definition of government grants in paragraph 3 are certain forms of government assistance which cannot reasonably have a value placed upon them and transactions with government which cannot be distinguished from the normal trading transactions of the entity.

Examples of assistance that cannot reasonably have a value placed upon them are free technical or marketing advice and the provision of guarantees. An example of assistance that cannot be distinguished from the normal trading transactions of the entity is a government procurement policy that is responsible for a portion of the entity's sales. The existence of the benefit might be unquestioned but any attempt to segregate the trading activities from government assistance could well be arbitrary.

The significance of the benefit in the above examples may be such that disclosure of the nature, extent and duration of the assistance is necessary in order that the financial statements may not be misleading.

Loans at nil or low interest rates are a form of government assistance, but the benefit is not quantified by the imputation of interest.

In this standard, government assistance does not include the provision of infrastructure by improvement to the general transport and communication network and the supply of improved facilities such as irrigation or water reticulation which is available on an ongoing indeterminate basis for the benefit of an entire local community.

DISCLOSURE

The following matters shall be disclosed:

(a)

the accounting policy adopted for government grants, including the methods of presentation adopted in the financial statements;

(b)

the nature and extent of government grants recognised in the financial statements and an indication of other forms of government assistance from which the entity has directly benefited; and

(c)

unfulfilled conditions and other contingencies attaching to government assistance that has been recognised.

TRANSITIONAL PROVISIONS

An entity adopting the standard for the first time shall:

(a)

comply with the disclosure requirements, where appropriate; and

(b)

either:

(i)

adjust its financial statements for the change in accounting policy in accordance with IAS 8; or

(ii)

apply the accounting provisions of the standard only to grants or portions of grants becoming receivable or repayable after the effective date of the standard.

EFFECTIVE DATE

This standard becomes operative for financial statements covering periods beginning on or after 1 January 1984.

( 1 ) See also SIC-10 Government assistance — no specific relation to operating activities .

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 21

The effects of changes in foreign exchange rates

OBJECTIVE

An entity may carry on foreign activities in two ways. It may have transactions in foreign currencies or it may have foreign operations. In addition, an entity may present its financial statements in a foreign currency. The objective of this standard is to prescribe how to include foreign currency transactions and foreign operations in the financial statements of an entity and how to translate financial statements into a presentation currency.

The principal issues are which exchange rate(s) to use and how to report the effects of changes in exchange rates in the financial statements.

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied ( 1 ) :

(a)

in accounting for transactions and balances in foreign currencies, except for those derivative transactions and balances that are within the scope of IAS 39 Financial instruments: recognition and measurement ;

(b)

in translating the results and financial position of foreign operations that are included in the financial statements of the entity by consolidation, proportionate consolidation or the equity method; and

(c)

in translating an entity's results and financial position into a presentation currency.

IAS 39 applies to many foreign currency derivatives and, accordingly, these are excluded from the scope of this standard. However, those foreign currency derivatives that are not within the scope of IAS 39 (e.g. some foreign currency derivatives that are embedded in other contracts) are within the scope of this standard. In addition, this standard applies when an entity translates amounts relating to derivatives from its functional currency to its presentation currency.

This standard does not apply to hedge accounting for foreign currency items, including the hedging of a net investment in a foreign operation. IAS 39 applies to hedge accounting.

This standard applies to the presentation of an entity's financial statements in a foreign currency and sets out requirements for the resulting financial statements to be described as complying with international financial reporting standards. For translations of financial information into a foreign currency that do not meet these requirements, this standard specifies information to be disclosed.

This standard does not apply to the presentation in a cash-flow statement of cash flows arising from transactions in a foreign currency, or to the translation of cash flows of a foreign operation (see IAS 7 Cash-flow statements ).

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

Closing rate is the spot exchange rate at the balance sheet date.

Exchange difference is the difference resulting from translating a given number of units of one currency into another currency at different exchange rates.

Exchange rate is the ratio of exchange for two currencies.

Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, or a liability settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm's length transaction.

Foreign currency is a currency other than the functional currency of the entity.

Foreign operation is an entity that is a subsidiary, associate, joint venture or branch of a reporting entity, the activities of which are based or conducted in a country or currency other than those of the reporting entity.

Functional currency is the currency of the primary economic environment in which the entity operates.

A group is a parent and all its subsidiaries.

Monetary items are units of currency held and assets and liabilities to be received or paid in a fixed or determinable number of units of currency.

Net investment in a foreign operation is the amount of the reporting entity's interest in the net assets of that operation.

Presentation currency is the currency in which the financial statements are presented.

Spot exchange rate is the exchange rate for immediate delivery.

Elaboration on the definitions

Functional currency

The primary economic environment in which an entity operates is normally the one in which it primarily generates and expends cash. An entity considers the following factors in determining its functional currency:

(a)

the currency:

(i)

that mainly influences sales prices for goods and services (this will often be the currency in which sales prices for its goods and services are denominated and settled); and

(ii)

of the country whose competitive forces and regulations mainly determine the sales prices of its goods and services;

(b)

the currency that mainly influences labour, material and other costs of providing goods or services (this will often be the currency in which such costs are denominated and settled).

The following factors may also provide evidence of an entity's functional currency:

(a)

the currency in which funds from financing activities (i.e. issuing debt and equity instruments) are generated;

(b)

the currency in which receipts from operating activities are usually retained.

The following additional factors are considered in determining the functional currency of a foreign operation, and whether its functional currency is the same as that of the reporting entity (the reporting entity, in this context, being the entity that has the foreign operation as its subsidiary, branch, associate or joint venture):

(a)

whether the activities of the foreign operation are carried out as an extension of the reporting entity, rather than being carried out with a significant degree of autonomy. An example of the former is when the foreign operation only sells goods imported from the reporting entity and remits the proceeds to it. An example of the latter is when the operation accumulates cash and other monetary items, incurs expenses, generates income and arranges borrowings, all substantially in its local currency;

(b)

whether transactions with the reporting entity are a high or a low proportion of the foreign operation's activities;

(c)

whether cash flows from the activities of the foreign operation directly affect the cash flows of the reporting entity and are readily available for remittance to it;

(d)

whether cash flows from the activities of the foreign operation are sufficient to service existing and normally expected debt obligations without funds being made available by the reporting entity.

When the above indicators are mixed and the functional currency is not obvious, management uses its judgement to determine the functional currency that most faithfully represents the economic effects of the underlying transactions, events and conditions. As part of this approach, management gives priority to the primary indicators in paragraph 9 before considering the indicators in paragraphs 10 and 11, which are designed to provide additional supporting evidence to determine an entity's functional currency.

An entity's functional currency reflects the underlying transactions, events and conditions that are relevant to it. Accordingly, once determined, the functional currency is not changed unless there is a change in those underlying transactions, events and conditions.

If the functional currency is the currency of a hyperinflationary economy, the entity's financial statements are restated in accordance with IAS 29 Financial reporting in hyperinflationary economies. An entity cannot avoid restatement in accordance with IAS 29 by, for example, adopting as its functional currency a currency other than the functional currency determined in accordance with this standard (such as the functional currency of its parent).

Net investment in a foreign operation

An entity may have a monetary item that is receivable from or payable to a foreign operation. An item for which settlement is neither planned nor likely to occur in the foreseeable future is, in substance, a part of the entity's net investment in that foreign operation, and is accounted for in accordance with paragraphs 32 and 33. Such monetary items may include long-term receivables or loans. They do not include trade receivables or trade payables.

15A

The entity that has a monetary item receivable from or payable to a foreign operation described in paragraph 15 may be any subsidiary of the group. For example, an entity has two subsidiaries, A and B. Subsidiary B is a foreign operation. Subsidiary A grants a loan to Subsidiary B. Subsidiary A's loan receivable from Subsidiary B would be part of the entity's net investment in Subsidiary B if settlement of the loan is neither planned nor likely to occur in the foreseeable future. This would also be true if Subsidiary A were itself a foreign operation.

Monetary items

The essential feature of a monetary item is a right to receive (or an obligation to deliver) a fixed or determinable number of units of currency. Examples include: pensions and other employee benefits to be paid in cash; provisions that are to be settled in cash; and cash dividends that are recognised as a liability. Similarly, a contract to receive (or deliver) a variable number of the entity's own equity instruments or a variable amount of assets in which the fair value to be received (or delivered) equals a fixed or determinable number of units of currency is a monetary item. Conversely, the essential feature of a non-monetary item is the absence of a right to receive (or an obligation to deliver) a fixed or determinable number of units of currency. Examples include: amounts prepaid for goods and services (e.g. prepaid rent); goodwill; intangible assets; inventories; property, plant and equipment; and provisions that are to be settled by the delivery of a non-monetary asset.

SUMMARY OF THE APPROACH REQUIRED BY THIS STANDARD

In preparing financial statements, each entity — whether a stand-alone entity, an entity with foreign operations (such as a parent) or a foreign operation (such as a subsidiary or branch) — determines its functional currency in accordance with paragraphs 9-14. The entity translates foreign currency items into its functional currency and reports the effects of such translation in accordance with paragraphs 20-37 and 50.

Many reporting entities comprise a number of individual entities (e.g. a group is made up of a parent and one or more subsidiaries). Various types of entities, whether members of a group or otherwise, may have investments in associates or joint ventures. They may also have branches. It is necessary for the results and financial position of each individual entity included in the reporting entity to be translated into the currency in which the reporting entity presents its financial statements. This standard permits the presentation currency of a reporting entity to be any currency (or currencies). The results and financial position of any individual entity within the reporting entity whose functional currency differs from the presentation currency are translated in accordance with paragraphs 38-50.

This standard also permits a stand-alone entity preparing financial statements or an entity preparing separate financial statements in accordance with IAS 27 Consolidated and separate financial statements to present its financial statements in any currency (or currencies). If the entity's presentation currency differs from its functional currency, its results and financial position are also translated into the presentation currency in accordance with paragraphs 38-50.

REPORTING FOREIGN CURRENCY TRANSACTIONS IN THE FUNCTIONAL CURRENCY

Initial recognition

A foreign currency transaction is a transaction that is denominated or requires settlement in a foreign currency, including transactions arising when an entity:

(a)

buys or sells goods or services whose price is denominated in a foreign currency;

(b)

borrows or lends funds when the amounts payable or receivable are denominated in a foreign currency; or

(c)

otherwise acquires or disposes of assets, or incurs or settles liabilities, denominated in a foreign currency.

A foreign currency transaction shall be recorded, on initial recognition in the functional currency, by applying to the foreign currency amount the spot exchange rate between the functional currency and the foreign currency at the date of the transaction.

The date of a transaction is the date on which the transaction first qualifies for recognition in accordance with international financial reporting standards. For practical reasons, a rate that approximates the actual rate at the date of the transaction is often used, for example, an average rate for a week or a month might be used for all transactions in each foreign currency occurring during that period. However, if exchange rates fluctuate significantly, the use of the average rate for a period is inappropriate.

Reporting at subsequent balance sheet dates

At each balance sheet date:

(a)

foreign currency monetary items shall be translated using the closing rate;

(b)

non-monetary items that are measured in terms of historical cost in a foreign currency shall be translated using the exchange rate at the date of the transaction; and

(c)

non-monetary items that are measured at fair value in a foreign currency shall be translated using the exchange rates at the date when the fair value was determined.

The carrying amount of an item is determined in conjunction with other relevant standards. For example, property, plant and equipment may be measured in terms of fair value or historical cost in accordance with IAS 16 Property, plant and equipment . Whether the carrying amount is determined on the basis of historical cost or on the basis of fair value, if the amount is determined in a foreign currency it is then translated into the functional currency in accordance with this standard.

The carrying amount of some items is determined by comparing two or more amounts. For example, the carrying amount of inventories is the lower of cost and net realisable value in accordance with IAS 2 Inventories . Similarly, in accordance with IAS 36 Impairment of assets , the carrying amount of an asset for which there is an indication of impairment is the lower of its carrying amount before considering possible impairment losses and its recoverable amount. When such an asset is non-monetary and is measured in a foreign currency, the carrying amount is determined by comparing:

(a)

the cost or carrying amount, as appropriate, translated at the exchange rate at the date when that amount was determined (i.e. the rate at the date of the transaction for an item measured in terms of historical cost); and

(b)

the net realisable value or recoverable amount, as appropriate, translated at the exchange rate at the date when that value was determined (e.g. the closing rate at the balance sheet date).

The effect of this comparison may be that an impairment loss is recognised in the functional currency but would not be recognised in the foreign currency, or vice versa.

When several exchange rates are available, the rate used is that at which the future cash flows represented by the transaction or balance could have been settled if those cash flows had occurred at the measurement date. If exchangeability between two currencies is temporarily lacking, the rate used is the first subsequent rate at which exchanges could be made.

Recognition of exchange differences

As noted in paragraph 3, IAS 39 applies to hedge accounting for foreign currency items. The application of hedge accounting requires an entity to account for some exchange differences differently from the treatment of exchange differences required by this standard. For example, IAS 39 requires that exchange differences on monetary items that qualify as hedging instruments in a cash flow hedge are reported initially in equity to the extent that the hedge is effective.

Exchange differences arising on the settlement of monetary items or on translating monetary items at rates different from those at which they were translated on initial recognition during the period or in previous financial statements shall be recognised in profit or loss in the period in which they arise, except as described in paragraph 32.

When monetary items arise from a foreign currency transaction and there is a change in the exchange rate between the transaction date and the date of settlement, an exchange difference results. When the transaction is settled within the same accounting period as that in which it occurred, all the exchange difference is recognised in that period. However, when the transaction is settled in a subsequent accounting period, the exchange difference recognised in each period up to the date of settlement is determined by the change in exchange rates during each period.

When a gain or loss on a non-monetary item is recognised directly in equity, any exchange component of that gain or loss shall be recognised directly in equity. Conversely, when a gain or loss on a non-monetary item is recognised in profit or loss, any exchange component of that gain or loss shall be recognised in profit or loss.

Other standards require some gains and losses to be recognised directly in equity. For example, IAS 16 requires some gains and losses arising on a revaluation of property, plant and equipment to be recognised directly in equity. When such an asset is measured in a foreign currency, paragraph 23(c) of this standard requires the revalued amount to be translated using the rate at the date the value is determined, resulting in an exchange difference that is also recognised in equity.

Exchange differences arising on a monetary item that forms part of a reporting entity's net investment in a foreign operation (see paragraph 15) shall be recognised in profit or loss in the separate financial statements of the reporting entity or the individual financial statements of the foreign operation, as appropriate. In the financial statements that include the foreign operation and the reporting entity (e.g. consolidated financial statements when the foreign operation is a subsidiary), such exchange differences shall be recognised initially in a separate component of equity and recognised in profit or loss on disposal of the net investment in accordance with paragraph 48.

When a monetary item forms part of a reporting entity's net investment in a foreign operation and is denominated in the functional currency of the reporting entity, an exchange difference arises in the foreign operation's individual financial statements in accordance with paragraph 28. If such an item is denominated in the functional currency of the foreign operation, an exchange difference arises in the reporting entity's separate financial statements in accordance with paragraph 28. If such an item is denominated in a currency other than the functional currency of either the reporting entity or the foreign operation, an exchange difference arises in the reporting entity's separate financial statements and in the foreign operation's individual financial statements in accordance with paragraph 28. Such exchange differences are reclassified to the separate component of equity in the financial statements that include the foreign operation and the reporting entity (i.e. financial statements in which the foreign operation is consolidated, proportionately consolidated or accounted for using the equity method).

When an entity keeps its books and records in a currency other than its functional currency, at the time the entity prepares its financial statements all amounts are translated into the functional currency in accordance with paragraphs 20-26. This produces the same amounts in the functional currency as would have occurred had the items been recorded initially in the functional currency. For example, monetary items are translated into the functional currency using the closing rate, and non-monetary items that are measured on a historical cost basis are translated using the exchange rate at the date of the transaction that resulted in their recognition.

Change in functional currency

When there is a change in an entity's functional currency, the entity shall apply the translation procedures applicable to the new functional currency prospectively from the date of the change.

As noted in paragraph 13, the functional currency of an entity reflects the underlying transactions, events and conditions that are relevant to the entity. Accordingly, once the functional currency is determined, it can be changed only if there is a change to those underlying transactions, events and conditions. For example, a change in the currency that mainly influences the sales prices of goods and services may lead to a change in an entity's functional currency.

The effect of a change in functional currency is accounted for prospectively. In other words, an entity translates all items into the new functional currency using the exchange rate at the date of the change. The resulting translated amounts for non-monetary items are treated as their historical cost. Exchange differences arising from the translation of a foreign operation previously classified in equity in accordance with paragraphs 32 and 39(c) are not recognised in profit or loss until the disposal of the operation.

USE OF A PRESENTATION CURRENCY OTHER THAN THE FUNCTIONAL CURRENCY

Translation to the presentation currency

An entity may present its financial statements in any currency (or currencies). If the presentation currency differs from the entity's functional currency, it translates its results and financial position into the presentation currency. For example, when a group contains individual entities with different functional currencies, the results and financial position of each entity are expressed in a common currency so that consolidated financial statements may be presented.

The results and financial position of an entity whose functional currency is not the currency of a hyperinflationary economy shall be translated into a different presentation currency using the following procedures:

(a)

assets and liabilities for each balance sheet presented (i.e. including comparatives) shall be translated at the closing rate at the date of that balance sheet;

(b)

income and expenses for each income statement (i.e. including comparatives) shall be translated at exchange rates at the dates of the transactions; and

(c)

all resulting exchange differences shall be recognised as a separate component of equity.

For practical reasons, a rate that approximates the exchange rates at the dates of the transactions, for example an average rate for the period, is often used to translate income and expense items. However, if exchange rates fluctuate significantly, the use of the average rate for a period is inappropriate.

The exchange differences referred to in paragraph 39(c) result from:

(a)

translating income and expenses at the exchange rates at the dates of the transactions and assets and liabilities at the closing rate. Such exchange differences arise both on income and expense items recognised in profit or loss and on those recognised directly in equity;

(b)

translating the opening net assets at a closing rate that differs from the previous closing rate.

These exchange differences are not recognised in profit or loss because the changes in exchange rates have little or no direct effect on the present and future cash flows from operations. When the exchange differences relate to a foreign operation that is consolidated but not wholly-owned, accumulated exchange differences arising from translation and attributable to minority interests are allocated to, and recognised as part of, minority interest in the consolidated balance sheet.

The results and financial position of an entity whose functional currency is the currency of a hyperinflationary economy shall be translated into a different presentation currency using the following procedures:

(a)

all amounts (i.e. assets, liabilities, equity items, income and expenses, including comparatives) shall be translated at the closing rate at the date of the most recent balance sheet; except that

(b)

when amounts are translated into the currency of a non-hyperinflationary economy, comparative amounts shall be those that were presented as current year amounts in the relevant prior year financial statements (i.e. not adjusted for subsequent changes in the price level or subsequent changes in exchange rates).

When an entity's functional currency is the currency of a hyperinflationary economy, the entity shall restate its financial statements in accordance with IAS 29 before applying the translation method set out in paragraph 42, except for comparative amounts that are translated into a currency of a non-hyperinflationary economy (see paragraph 42(b)). When the economy ceases to be hyperinflationary and the entity no longer restates its financial statements in accordance with IAS 29, it shall use as the historical costs for translation into the presentation currency the amounts restated to the price level at the date the entity ceased restating its financial statements.

Translation of a foreign operation

Paragraphs 45-47, in addition to paragraphs 38-43, apply when the results and financial position of a foreign operation are translated into a presentation currency so that the foreign operation can be included in the financial statements of the reporting entity by consolidation, proportionate consolidation or the equity method.

The incorporation of the results and financial position of a foreign operation with those of the reporting entity follows normal consolidation procedures, such as the elimination of intragroup balances and intragroup transactions of a subsidiary (see IAS 27 and IAS 31 Interests in joint ventures ). However, an intragroup monetary asset (or liability), whether short-term or long-term, cannot be eliminated against the corresponding intragroup liability (or asset) without showing the results of currency fluctuations in the consolidated financial statements. This is because the monetary item represents a commitment to convert one currency into another and exposes the reporting entity to a gain or loss through currency fluctuations. Accordingly, in the consolidated financial statements of the reporting entity, such an exchange difference continues to be recognised in profit or loss or, if it arises from the circumstances described in paragraph 32, it is classified as equity until the disposal of the foreign operation.

When the financial statements of a foreign operation are as of a date different from that of the reporting entity, the foreign operation often prepares additional statements as of the same date as the reporting entity's financial statements. When this is not done, IAS 27 allows the use of a different reporting date provided that the difference is no greater than three months and adjustments are made for the effects of any significant transactions or other events that occur between the different dates. In such a case, the assets and liabilities of the foreign operation are translated at the exchange rate at the balance sheet date of the foreign operation. Adjustments are made for significant changes in exchange rates up to the balance sheet date of the reporting entity in accordance with IAS 27. The same approach is used in applying the equity method to associates and joint ventures and in applying proportionate consolidation to joint ventures in accordance with IAS 28 Investments in associates and IAS 31.

Any goodwill arising on the acquisition of a foreign operation and any fair value adjustments to the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities arising on the acquisition of that foreign operation shall be treated as assets and liabilities of the foreign operation. Thus they shall be expressed in the functional currency of the foreign operation and shall be translated at the closing rate in accordance with paragraphs 39 and 42.

Disposal of a foreign operation

On the disposal of a foreign operation, the cumulative amount of the exchange differences deferred in the separate component of equity relating to that foreign operation shall be recognised in profit or loss when the gain or loss on disposal is recognised.

An entity may dispose of its interest in a foreign operation through sale, liquidation, repayment of share capital or abandonment of all, or part of, that entity. The payment of a dividend is part of a disposal only when it constitutes a return of the investment, for example when the dividend is paid out of pre-acquisition profits. In the case of a partial disposal, only the proportionate share of the related accumulated exchange difference is included in the gain or loss. A write-down of the carrying amount of a foreign operation does not constitute a partial disposal. Accordingly, no part of the deferred foreign exchange gain or loss is recognised in profit or loss at the time of a write-down.

TAX EFFECTS OF ALL EXCHANGE DIFFERENCES

Gains and losses on foreign currency transactions and exchange differences arising on translating the results and financial position of an entity (including a foreign operation) into a different currency may have tax effects. IAS 12 Income taxes applies to these tax effects.

DISCLOSURE

In paragraphs 53 and 55-57 references to ‘functional currency’ apply, in the case of a group, to the functional currency of the parent.

An entity shall disclose:

(a)

the amount of exchange differences recognised in profit or loss except for those arising on financial instruments measured at fair value through profit or loss in accordance with IAS 39; and

(b)

net exchange differences classified in a separate component of equity, and a reconciliation of the amount of such exchange differences at the beginning and end of the period.

When the presentation currency is different from the functional currency, that fact shall be stated, together with disclosure of the functional currency and the reason for using a different presentation currency.

When there is a change in the functional currency of either the reporting entity or a significant foreign operation, that fact and the reason for the change in functional currency shall be disclosed.

When an entity presents its financial statements in a currency that is different from its functional currency, it shall describe the financial statements as complying with international financial reporting standards only if they comply with all the requirements of each applicable standard and each applicable interpretation of those standards, including the translation method set out in paragraphs 39 and 42.

An entity sometimes presents its financial statements or other financial information in a currency that is not its functional currency without meeting the requirements of paragraph 55. For example, an entity may convert into another currency only selected items from its financial statements. Or, an entity whose functional currency is not the currency of a hyperinflationary economy may convert the financial statements into another currency by translating all items at the most recent closing rate. Such conversions are not in accordance with international financial reporting standards and the disclosures set out in paragraph 57 are required.

When an entity displays its financial statements or other financial information in a currency that is different from either its functional currency or its presentation currency and the requirements of paragraph 55 are not met, it shall:

(a)

clearly identify the information as supplementary information to distinguish it from the information that complies with international financial reporting standards;

(b)

disclose the currency in which the supplementary information is displayed; and

(c)

disclose the entity's functional currency and the method of translation used to determine the supplementary information.

EFFECTIVE DATE AND TRANSITION

58A

Net investment in a foreign operation (amendment to IAS 21), issued in December 2005, added paragraph 15A and amended paragraph 33. An entity shall apply those amendments for annual periods beginning on or after 1 January 2006. Earlier application is encouraged.

An entity shall apply paragraph 47 prospectively to all acquisitions occurring after the beginning of the financial reporting period in which this standard is first applied. Retrospective application of paragraph 47 to earlier acquisitions is permitted. For an acquisition of a foreign operation treated prospectively but which occurred before the date on which this standard is first applied, the entity shall not restate prior years and accordingly may, when appropriate, treat goodwill and fair value adjustments arising on that acquisition as assets and liabilities of the entity rather than as assets and liabilities of the foreign operation. Therefore, those goodwill and fair value adjustments either are already expressed in the entity's functional currency or are non-monetary foreign currency items, which are reported using the exchange rate at the date of the acquisition.

All other changes resulting from the application of this standard shall be accounted for in accordance with the requirements of IAS 8 Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and errors .

WITHDRAWAL OF OTHER PRONOUNCEMENTS

This standard supersedes IAS 21 The effects of changes in foreign exchange rates (revised in 1993).

This standard supersedes the following interpretations:

(a)

SIC-11 Foreign exchange — capitalisation of losses resulting from severe currency devaluations ;

(b)

SIC-19 Reporting currency — measurement and presentation of financial statements under IAS 21 and IAS 29 ; and

(c)

SIC-30 Reporting currency — translation from measurement currency to presentation currency .

( 1 ) See also SIC-7 Introduction of the euro .

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 23

Borrowing costs

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this standard is to prescribe the accounting treatment for borrowing costs. This standard generally requires the immediate expensing of borrowing costs. However, the standard permits, as an allowed alternative treatment, the capitalisation of borrowing costs that are directly attributable to the acquisition, construction or production of a qualifying asset.

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied in accounting for borrowing costs.

This standard supersedes IAS 23 Capitalisation of borrowing costs approved in 1983.

This standard does not deal with the actual or imputed cost of equity, including preferred capital not classified as a liability.

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

Borrowing costs are interest and other costs incurred by an entity in connection with the borrowing of funds.

A qualifying asset is an asset that necessarily takes a substantial period of time to get ready for its intended use or sale.

Borrowing costs may include:

(a)

interest on bank overdrafts and short-term and long-term borrowings;

(b)

amortisation of discounts or premiums relating to borrowings;

(c)

amortisation of ancillary costs incurred in connection with the arrangement of borrowings;

(d)

finance charges in respect of finance leases recognised in accordance with IAS 17 Leases; and

(e)

exchange differences arising from foreign currency borrowings to the extent that they are regarded as an adjustment to interest costs.

Examples of qualifying assets are inventories that require a substantial period of time to bring them to a saleable condition, manufacturing plants, power generation facilities and investment properties. Other investments, and those inventories that are routinely manufactured or otherwise produced in large quantities on a repetitive basis over a short period of time, are not qualifying assets. Assets that are ready for their intended use or sale when acquired also are not qualifying assets.

BORROWING COSTS — BENCHMARK TREATMENT

Recognition

Borrowing costs shall be recognised as an expense in the period in which they are incurred.

Under the benchmark treatment borrowing costs are recognised as an expense in the period in which they are incurred regardless of how the borrowings are applied.

Disclosure

The financial statements shall disclose the accounting policy adopted for borrowing costs.

BORROWING COSTS — ALLOWED ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT

Recognition

Borrowing costs shall be recognised as an expense in the period in which they are incurred, except to the extent that they are capitalised in accordance with paragraph 11.

Borrowing costs that are directly attributable to the acquisition, construction or production of a qualifying asset shall be capitalised as part of the cost of that asset. The amount of borrowing costs eligible for capitalisation shall be determined in accordance with this standard.

Under the allowed alternative treatment, borrowing costs that are directly attributable to the acquisition, construction or production of an asset are included in the cost of that asset. Such borrowing costs are capitalised as part of the cost of the asset when it is probable that they will result in future economic benefits to the entity and the costs can be measured reliably. Other borrowing costs are recognised as an expense in the period in which they are incurred.

Borrowing costs eligible for capitalisation

The borrowing costs that are directly attributable to the acquisition, construction or production of a qualifying asset are those borrowing costs that would have been avoided if the expenditure on the qualifying asset had not been made. When an entity borrows funds specifically for the purpose of obtaining a particular qualifying asset, the borrowing costs that directly relate to that qualifying asset can be readily identified.

It may be difficult to identify a direct relationship between particular borrowings and a qualifying asset and to determine the borrowings that could otherwise have been avoided. Such a difficulty occurs, for example, when the financing activity of an entity is coordinated centrally. Difficulties also arise when a group uses a range of debt instruments to borrow funds at varying rates of interest, and lends those funds on various bases to other entities in the group. Other complications arise through the use of loans denominated in or linked to foreign currencies, when the group operates in highly inflationary economies, and from fluctuations in exchange rates. As a result, the determination of the amount of borrowing costs that are directly attributable to the acquisition of a qualifying asset is difficult and the exercise of judgement is required.

To the extent that funds are borrowed specifically for the purpose of obtaining a qualifying asset, the amount of borrowing costs eligible for capitalisation on that asset shall be determined as the actual borrowing costs incurred on that borrowing during the period less any investment income on the temporary investment of those borrowings.

The financing arrangements for a qualifying asset may result in an entity obtaining borrowed funds and incurring associated borrowing costs before some or all of the funds are used for expenditures on the qualifying asset. In such circumstances, the funds are often temporarily invested pending their expenditure on the qualifying asset. In determining the amount of borrowing costs eligible for capitalisation during a period, any investment income earned on such funds is deducted from the borrowing costs incurred.

To the extent that funds are borrowed generally and used for the purpose of obtaining a qualifying asset, the amount of borrowing costs eligible for capitalisation shall be determined by applying a capitalisation rate to the expenditures on that asset. The capitalisation rate shall be the weighted average of the borrowing costs applicable to the borrowings of the entity that are outstanding during the period, other than borrowings made specifically for the purpose of obtaining a qualifying asset. The amount of borrowing costs capitalised during a period shall not exceed the amount of borrowing costs incurred during that period.

In some circumstances, it is appropriate to include all borrowings of the parent and its subsidiaries when computing a weighted average of the borrowing costs; in other circumstances, it is appropriate for each subsidiary to use a weighted average of the borrowing costs applicable to its own borrowings.

Excess of the carrying amount of the qualifying asset over recoverable amount

When the carrying amount or the expected ultimate cost of the qualifying asset exceeds its recoverable amount or net realisable value, the carrying amount is written down or written off in accordance with the requirements of other standards. In certain circumstances, the amount of the write-down or write-off is written back in accordance with those other standards.

Commencement of capitalisation

The capitalisation of borrowing costs as part of the cost of a qualifying asset shall commence when:

(a)

expenditures for the asset are being incurred;

(b)

borrowing costs are being incurred; and

(c)

activities that are necessary to prepare the asset for its intended use or sale are in progress.

Expenditures on a qualifying asset include only those expenditures that have resulted in payments of cash, transfers of other assets or the assumption of interest-bearing liabilities. Expenditures are reduced by any progress payments received and grants received in connection with the asset (see IAS 20 Accounting for government grants and disclosure of government assistance ). The average carrying amount of the asset during a period, including borrowing costs previously capitalised, is normally a reasonable approximation of the expenditures to which the capitalisation rate is applied in that period.

The activities necessary to prepare the asset for its intended use or sale encompass more than the physical construction of the asset. They include technical and administrative work prior to the commencement of physical construction, such as the activities associated with obtaining permits prior to the commencement of the physical construction. However, such activities exclude the holding of an asset when no production or development that changes the asset's condition is taking place. For example, borrowing costs incurred while land is under development are capitalised during the period in which activities related to the development are being undertaken. However, borrowing costs incurred while land acquired for building purposes is held without any associated development activity do not qualify for capitalisation.

Suspension of capitalisation

Capitalisation of borrowing costs shall be suspended during extended periods in which active development is interrupted.

Borrowing costs may be incurred during an extended period in which the activities necessary to prepare an asset for its intended use or sale are interrupted. Such costs are costs of holding partially completed assets and do not qualify for capitalisation. However, capitalisation of borrowing costs is not normally suspended during a period when substantial technical and administrative work is being carried out. Capitalisation of borrowing costs is also not suspended when a temporary delay is a necessary part of the process of getting an asset ready for its intended use or sale. For example, capitalisation continues during the extended period needed for inventories to mature or the extended period during which high water levels delay construction of a bridge, if such high water levels are common during the construction period in the geographic region involved.

Cessation of capitalisation

Capitalisation of borrowing costs shall cease when substantially all the activities necessary to prepare the qualifying asset for its intended use or sale are complete.

An asset is normally ready for its intended use or sale when the physical construction of the asset is complete even though routine administrative work might still continue. If minor modifications, such as the decoration of a property to the purchaser's or user's specification, are all that are outstanding, this indicates that substantially all the activities are complete.

When the construction of a qualifying asset is completed in parts and each part is capable of being used while construction continues on other parts, capitalisation of borrowing costs shall cease when substantially all the activities necessary to prepare that part for its intended use or sale are completed.

A business park comprising several buildings, each of which can be used individually is an example of a qualifying asset for which each part is capable of being usable while construction continues on other parts. An example of a qualifying asset that needs to be complete before any part can be used is an industrial plant involving several processes which are carried out in sequence at different parts of the plant within the same site, such as a steel mill.

DISCLOSURE

The financial statements shall disclose:

(a)

the accounting policy adopted for borrowing costs;

(b)

the amount of borrowing costs capitalised during the period; and

(c)

the capitalisation rate used to determine the amount of borrowing costs eligible for capitalisation.

TRANSITIONAL PROVISIONS

When the adoption of this standard constitutes a change in accounting policy, an entity is encouraged to adjust its financial statements in accordance with IAS 8 Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and errors . Alternatively, entities shall capitalise only those borrowing costs incurred after the effective date of the standard that meet the criteria for capitalisation.

EFFECTIVE DATE

This standard becomes operative for financial statements covering periods beginning on or after 1 January 1995.

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 24

Related party disclosures

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this standard is to ensure that an entity's financial statements contain the disclosures necessary to draw attention to the possibility that its financial position and profit or loss may have been affected by the existence of related parties and by transactions and outstanding balances with such parties.

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied in:

(a)

identifying related party relationships and transactions;

(b)

identifying outstanding balances between an entity and its related parties;

(c)

identifying the circumstances in which disclosure of the items in (a) and (b) is required; and

(d)

determining the disclosures to be made about those items.

This standard requires disclosure of related party transactions and outstanding balances in the separate financial statements of a parent, venturer or investor presented in accordance with IAS 27 Consolidated and separate financial statements .

Related party transactions and outstanding balances with other entities in a group are disclosed in an entity's financial statements. Intragroup related party transactions and outstanding balances are eliminated in the preparation of consolidated financial statements of the group.

PURPOSE OF RELATED PARTY DISCLOSURES

Related party relationships are a normal feature of commerce and business. For example, entities frequently carry on parts of their activities through subsidiaries, joint ventures and associates. In these circumstances, the entity's ability to affect the financial and operating policies of the investee is through the presence of control, joint control or significant influence.

A related party relationship could have an effect on the profit or loss and financial position of an entity. Related parties may enter into transactions that unrelated parties would not. For example, an entity that sells goods to its parent at cost might not sell on those terms to another customer. Also, transactions between related parties may not be made at the same amounts as between unrelated parties.

The profit or loss and financial position of an entity may be affected by a related party relationship even if related party transactions do not occur. The mere existence of the relationship may be sufficient to affect the transactions of the entity with other parties. For example, a subsidiary may terminate relations with a trading partner on acquisition by the parent of a fellow subsidiary engaged in the same activity as the former trading partner. Alternatively, one party may refrain from acting because of the significant influence of another — for example, a subsidiary may be instructed by its parent not to engage in research and development.

For these reasons, knowledge of related party transactions, outstanding balances and relationships may affect assessments of an entity's operations by users of financial statements, including assessments of the risks and opportunities facing the entity.

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

Related party A party is related to an entity if:

(a)

directly, or indirectly through one or more intermediaries, the party:

(i)

controls, is controlled by, or is under common control with, the entity (this includes parents, subsidiaries and fellow subsidiaries);

(ii)

has an interest in the entity that gives it significant influence over the entity; or

(iii)

has joint control over the entity;

(b)

the party is an associate (as defined in IAS 28 Investments in associates ) of the entity;

(c)

the party is a joint venture in which the entity is a venturer (see IAS 31 Interests in joint ventures );

(d)

the party is a member of the key management personnel of the entity or its parent;

(e)

the party is a close member of the family of any individual referred to in (a) or (d);

(f)

the party is an entity that is controlled, jointly controlled or significantly influenced by, or for which significant voting power in such entity resides with, directly or indirectly, any individual referred to in (d) or (e); or

(g)

the party is a post-employment benefit plan for the benefit of employees of the entity, or of any entity that is a related party of the entity.

A related party transaction is a transfer of resources, services or obligations between related parties, regardless of whether a price is charged.

Close members of the family of an individual are those family members who may be expected to influence, or be influenced by, that individual in their dealings with the entity. They may include:

(a)

the individual's domestic partner and children;

(b)

children of the individual's domestic partner; and

(c)

dependants of the individual or the individual's domestic partner.

Compensation includes all employee benefits (as defined in IAS 19 Employee benefits ) including employee benefits to which IFRS 2 Share-based payment applies. Employee benefits are all forms of consideration paid, payable or provided by the entity, or on behalf of the entity, in exchange for services rendered to the entity. It also includes such consideration paid on behalf of a parent of the entity in respect of the entity. Compensation includes:

(a)

(b)

post-employment benefits such as pensions, other retirement benefits, post-employment life insurance and post-employment medical care;

(c)

(d)

termination benefits; and

(e)

share-based payment.

Control is the power to govern the financial and operating policies of an entity so as to obtain benefits from its activities.

Joint control is the contractually agreed sharing of control over an economic activity.

Key management personnel are those persons having authority and responsibility for planning, directing and controlling the activities of the entity, directly or indirectly, including any director (whether executive or otherwise) of that entity.

Significant influence is the power to participate in the financial and operating policy decisions of an entity, but is not control over those policies. Significant influence may be gained by share ownership, statute or agreement.

In considering each possible related party relationship, attention is directed to the substance of the relationship and not merely the legal form.

In the context of this standard, the following are not necessarily related parties:

(a)

two entities simply because they have a director or other member of key management personnel in common, notwithstanding (d) and (f) in the definition of ‘related party’;

(b)

two venturers simply because they share joint control over a joint venture;

(c)

(i)

providers of finance;

(ii)

trade unions;

(iii)

public utilities; and

(iv)

government departments and agencies;

simply by virtue of their normal dealings with an entity (even though they may affect the freedom of action of an entity or participate in its decision-making process);

(d)

a customer, supplier, franchisor, distributor or general agent with whom an entity transacts a significant volume of business, merely by virtue of the resulting economic dependence.

DISCLOSURE

Relationships between parents and subsidiaries shall be disclosed irrespective of whether there have been transactions between those related parties. An entity shall disclose the name of the entity's parent and, if different, the ultimate controlling party. If neither the entity's parent nor the ultimate controlling party produces financial statements available for public use, the name of the next most senior parent that does so shall also be disclosed.

To enable users of financial statements to form a view about the effects of related party relationships on an entity, it is appropriate to disclose the related party relationship when control exists, irrespective of whether there have been transactions between the related parties.

The identification of related party relationships between parents and subsidiaries is in addition to the disclosure requirements in IAS 27, IAS 28 and IAS 31, which require an appropriate listing and description of significant investments in subsidiaries, associates and jointly controlled entities.

When neither the entity's parent nor the ultimate controlling party produces financial statements available for public use, the entity discloses the name of the next most senior parent that does so. The next most senior parent is the first parent in the group above the immediate parent that produces consolidated financial statements available for public use.

An entity shall disclose key management personnel compensation in total and for each of the following categories:

(a)

short-term employee benefits;

(b)

post-employment benefits;

(c)

other long-term benefits;

(d)

termination benefits; and

(e)

share-based payment.

If there have been transactions between related parties, an entity shall disclose the nature of the related party relationship as well as information about the transactions and outstanding balances necessary for an understanding of the potential effect of the relationship on the financial statements. These disclosure requirements are in addition to the requirements in paragraph 16 to disclose key management personnel compensation. At a minimum, disclosures shall include:

(a)

the amount of the transactions;

(b)

the amount of outstanding balances and:

(i)

their terms and conditions, including whether they are secured, and the nature of the consideration to be provided in settlement; and

(ii)

details of any guarantees given or received;

(c)

provisions for doubtful debts related to the amount of outstanding balances; and

(d)

the expense recognised during the period in respect of bad or doubtful debts due from related parties.

The disclosures required by paragraph 17 shall be made separately for each of the following categories:

(a)

the parent;

(b)

entities with joint control or significant influence over the entity;

(c)

subsidiaries;

(d)

associates;

(e)

joint ventures in which the entity is a venturer;

(f)

key management personnel of the entity or its parent; and

(g)

other related parties.

The classification of amounts payable to, and receivable from, related parties in the different categories as required in paragraph 18 is an extension of the disclosure requirement in IAS 1 Presentation of financial statements for information to be presented either on the balance sheet or in the notes. The categories are extended to provide a more comprehensive analysis of related party balances and apply to related party transactions.

The following are examples of transactions that are disclosed if they are with a related party:

(a)

purchases or sales of goods (finished or unfinished);

(b)

purchases or sales of property and other assets;

(c)

rendering or receiving of services;

(d)

leases;

(e)

transfers of research and development;

(f)

transfers under licence agreements;

(g)

transfers under finance arrangements (including loans and equity contributions in cash or in kind);

(h)

provision of guarantees or collateral; and

(i)

settlement of liabilities on behalf of the entity or by the entity on behalf of another party.

Participation by a parent or subsidiary in a defined benefit plan that shares risks between group entities is a transaction between related parties (see paragraph 34B of IAS 19).

Disclosures that related party transactions were made on terms equivalent to those that prevail in arm's length transactions are made only if such terms can be substantiated.

Items of a similar nature may be disclosed in aggregate except when separate disclosure is necessary for an understanding of the effects of related party transactions on the financial statements of the entity.

EFFECTIVE DATE

23A

An entity shall apply the amendments in paragraph 20 for annual periods beginning on or after 1 January 2006. If an entity applies the amendments to IAS 19 Employee benefits — actuarial gains and losses, group plans and disclosures for an earlier period, these amendments shall be applied for that earlier period.

WITHDRAWAL OF IAS 24 (REFORMATTED 1994)

This standard supersedes IAS 24 Related party disclosures (reformatted in 1994).

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 26

Accounting and reporting by retirement benefit plans

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied in the financial statements of retirement benefit plans where such financial statements are prepared.

Retirement benefit plans are sometimes referred to by various other names, such as ‘pension schemes’, ‘superannuation schemes’ or ‘retirement benefit schemes’. This standard regards a retirement benefit plan as a reporting entity separate from the employers of the participants in the plan. All other standards apply to the financial statements of retirement benefit plans to the extent that they are not superseded by this standard.

This standard deals with accounting and reporting by the plan to all participants as a group. It does not deal with reports to individual participants about their retirement benefit rights.

IAS 19 Employee benefits is concerned with the determination of the cost of retirement benefits in the financial statements of employers having plans. Hence this standard complements IAS 19.

Retirement benefit plans may be defined contribution plans or defined benefit plans. Many require the creation of separate funds, which may or may not have separate legal identity and may or may not have trustees, to which contributions are made and from which retirement benefits are paid. This standard applies regardless of whether such a fund is created and regardless of whether there are trustees.

Retirement benefit plans with assets invested with insurance companies are subject to the same accounting and funding requirements as privately invested arrangements. Accordingly, they are within the scope of this standard unless the contract with the insurance company is in the name of a specified participant or a group of participants and the retirement benefit obligation is solely the responsibility of the insurance company.

This standard does not deal with other forms of employment benefits such as employment termination indemnities, deferred compensation arrangements, long-service leave benefits, special early retirement or redundancy plans, health and welfare plans or bonus plans. Government social security type arrangements are also excluded from the scope of this standard.

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

Retirement benefit plans are arrangements whereby an entity provides benefits for employees on or after termination of service (either in the form of an annual income or as a lump sum) when such benefits, or the contributions towards them, can be determined or estimated in advance of retirement from the provisions of a document or from the entity's practices.

Defined contribution plans are retirement benefit plans under which amounts to be paid as retirement benefits are determined by contributions to a fund together with investment earnings thereon.

Defined benefit plans are retirement benefit plans under which amounts to be paid as retirement benefits are determined by reference to a formula usually based on employees' earnings and/or years of service.

Funding is the transfer of assets to an entity (the fund ) separate from the employer's entity to meet future obligations for the payment of retirement benefits.

For the purposes of this standard the following terms are also used:

Participants are the members of a retirement benefit plan and others who are entitled to benefits under the plan.

Net assets available for benefits are the assets of a plan less liabilities other than the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits.

Actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits is the present value of the expected payments by a retirement benefit plan to existing and past employees, attributable to the service already rendered.

Vested benefits are benefits, the rights to which, under the conditions of a retirement benefit plan, are not conditional on continued employment.

Some retirement benefit plans have sponsors other than employers; this standard also applies to the financial statements of such plans.

Most retirement benefit plans are based on formal agreements. Some plans are informal but have acquired a degree of obligation as a result of employers' established practices. While some plans permit employers to limit their obligations under the plans, it is usually difficult for an employer to cancel a plan if employees are to be retained. The same basis of accounting and reporting applies to an informal plan as to a formal plan.

Many retirement benefit plans provide for the establishment of separate funds into which contributions are made and out of which benefits are paid. Such funds may be administered by parties who act independently in managing fund assets. Those parties are called trustees in some countries. The term trustee is used in this standard to describe such parties regardless of whether a trust has been formed.

Retirement benefit plans are normally described as either defined contribution plans or defined benefit plans, each having their own distinctive characteristics. Occasionally plans exist that contain characteristics of both. Such hybrid plans are considered to be defined benefit plans for the purposes of this standard.

DEFINED CONTRIBUTION PLANS

The financial statements of a defined contribution plan shall contain a statement of net assets available for benefits and a description of the funding policy.

Under a defined contribution plan, the amount of a participant's future benefits is determined by the contributions paid by the employer, the participant, or both, and the operating efficiency and investment earnings of the fund. An employer's obligation is usually discharged by contributions to the fund. An actuary's advice is not normally required although such advice is sometimes used to estimate future benefits that may be achievable based on present contributions and varying levels of future contributions and investment earnings.

The participants are interested in the activities of the plan because they directly affect the level of their future benefits. Participants are interested in knowing whether contributions have been received and proper control has been exercised to protect the rights of beneficiaries. An employer is interested in the efficient and fair operation of the plan.

The objective of reporting by a defined contribution plan is periodically to provide information about the plan and the performance of its investments. That objective is usually achieved by providing financial statements, including the following:

(a)

a description of significant activities for the period and the effect of any changes relating to the plan, and its membership and terms and conditions;

(b)

statements reporting on the transactions and investment performance for the period and the financial position of the plan at the end of the period; and

(c)

a description of the investment policies.

DEFINED BENEFIT PLANS

The financial statements of a defined benefit plan shall contain either:

(a)

a statement that shows:

(i)

the net assets available for benefits;

(ii)

the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits, distinguishing between vested benefits and non-vested benefits; and

(iii)

the resulting excess or deficit; or

(b)

a statement of net assets available for benefits, including either:

(i)

a note disclosing the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits, distinguishing between vested benefits and non-vested benefits; or

(ii)

a reference to this information in an accompanying actuarial report.

If an actuarial valuation has not been prepared at the date of the financial statements, the most recent valuation shall be used as a base and the date of the valuation disclosed.

For the purposes of paragraph 17, the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits shall be based on the benefits promised under the terms of the plan on service rendered to date using either current salary levels or projected salary levels with disclosure of the basis used. The effect of any changes in actuarial assumptions that have had a significant effect on the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits shall also be disclosed.

The financial statements shall explain the relationship between the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits and the net assets available for benefits, and the policy for the funding of promised benefits.

Under a defined benefit plan, the payment of promised retirement benefits depends on the financial position of the plan and the ability of contributors to make future contributions to the plan as well as the investment performance and operating efficiency of the plan.

A defined benefit plan needs the periodic advice of an actuary to assess the financial condition of the plan, review the assumptions and recommend future contribution levels.

The objective of reporting by a defined benefit plan is periodically to provide information about the financial resources and activities of the plan that is useful in assessing the relationships between the accumulation of resources and plan benefits over time. This objective is usually achieved by providing financial statements, including the following:

(a)

a description of significant activities for the period and the effect of any changes relating to the plan, and its membership and terms and conditions;

(b)

statements reporting on the transactions and investment performance for the period and the financial position of the plan at the end of the period;

(c)

actuarial information either as part of the statements or by way of a separate report; and

(d)

a description of the investment policies.

Actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits

The present value of the expected payments by a retirement benefit plan may be calculated and reported using current salary levels or projected salary levels up to the time of retirement of participants.

The reasons given for adopting a current salary approach include:

(a)

the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits, being the sum of the amounts presently attributable to each participant in the plan, can be calculated more objectively than with projected salary levels because it involves fewer assumptions;

(b)

increases in benefits attributable to a salary increase become an obligation of the plan at the time of the salary increase; and

(c)

the amount of the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits using current salary levels is generally more closely related to the amount payable in the event of termination or discontinuance of the plan.

Reasons given for adopting a projected salary approach include:

(a)

financial information should be prepared on a going concern basis, irrespective of the assumptions and estimates that must be made;

(b)

under final pay plans, benefits are determined by reference to salaries at or near retirement date; hence salaries, contribution levels and rates of return must be projected; and

(c)

failure to incorporate salary projections, when most funding is based on salary projections, may result in the reporting of an apparent overfunding when the plan is not overfunded, or in reporting adequate funding when the plan is underfunded.

The actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits based on current salaries is disclosed in the financial statements of a plan to indicate the obligation for benefits earned to the date of the financial statements. The actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits based on projected salaries is disclosed to indicate the magnitude of the potential obligation on a going concern basis which is generally the basis for funding. In addition to disclosure of the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits, sufficient explanation may need to be given so as to indicate clearly the context in which the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits should be read. Such explanation may be in the form of information about the adequacy of the planned future funding and of the funding policy based on salary projections. This may be included in the financial statements or in the actuary's report.

Frequency of actuarial valuations

In many countries, actuarial valuations are not obtained more frequently than every three years. If an actuarial valuation has not been prepared at the date of the financial statements, the most recent valuation is used as a base and the date of the valuation disclosed.

Financial statement content

For defined benefit plans, information is presented in one of the following formats which reflect different practices in the disclosure and presentation of actuarial information:

(a)

a statement is included in the financial statements that shows the net assets available for benefits, the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits, and the resulting excess or deficit. The financial statements of the plan also contain statements of changes in net assets available for benefits and changes in the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits. The financial statements may be accompanied by a separate actuary's report supporting the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits;

(b)

financial statements that include a statement of net assets available for benefits and a statement of changes in net assets available for benefits. The actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits is disclosed in a note to the statements. The financial statements may also be accompanied by a report from an actuary supporting the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits; and

(c)

financial statements that include a statement of net assets available for benefits and a statement of changes in net assets available for benefits with the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits contained in a separate actuarial report.

In each format a trustees' report in the nature of a management or directors' report and an investment report may also accompany the financial statements.

Those in favour of the formats described in paragraph 28(a) and (b) believe that the quantification of promised retirement benefits and other information provided under those approaches help users to assess the current status of the plan and the likelihood of the plan's obligations being met. They also believe that financial statements should be complete in themselves and not rely on accompanying statements. However, some believe that the format described in paragraph 28(a) could give the impression that a liability exists, whereas the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits does not in their opinion have all the characteristics of a liability.

Those who favour the format described in paragraph 28(c) believe that the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits should not be included in a statement of net assets available for benefits as in the format described in paragraph 28(a) or even be disclosed in a note as in paragraph 28(b), because it will be compared directly with plan assets and such a comparison may not be valid. They contend that actuaries do not necessarily compare actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits with market values of investments but may instead assess the present value of cash flows expected from the investments. Therefore, those in favour of this format believe that such a comparison is unlikely to reflect the actuary's overall assessment of the plan and that it may be misunderstood. Also, some believe that, regardless of whether quantified, the information about promised retirement benefits should be contained solely in the separate actuarial report where a proper explanation can be provided.

This standard accepts the views in favour of permitting disclosure of the information concerning promised retirement benefits in a separate actuarial report. It rejects arguments against the quantification of the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits. Accordingly, the formats described in paragraph 28(a) and (b) are considered acceptable under this standard, as is the format described in paragraph 28(c) so long as the financial statements contain a reference to, and are accompanied by, an actuarial report that includes the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits.

ALL PLANS

Valuation of plan assets

Retirement benefit plan investments shall be carried at fair value. In the case of marketable securities fair value is market value. Where plan investments are held for which an estimate of fair value is not possible disclosure shall be made of the reason why fair value is not used.

In the case of marketable securities fair value is usually market value because this is considered the most useful measure of the securities at the report date and of the investment performance for the period. Those securities that have a fixed redemption value and that have been acquired to match the obligations of the plan, or specific parts thereof, may be carried at amounts based on their ultimate redemption value assuming a constant rate of return to maturity. Where plan investments are held for which an estimate of fair value is not possible, such as total ownership of an entity, disclosure is made of the reason why fair value is not used. To the extent that investments are carried at amounts other than market value or fair value, fair value is generally also disclosed. Assets used in the operations of the fund are accounted for in accordance with the applicable standards.

Disclosure

The financial statements of a retirement benefit plan, whether defined benefit or defined contribution, shall also contain the following information:

(a)

a statement of changes in net assets available for benefits;

(b)

a summary of significant accounting policies; and

(c)

a description of the plan and the effect of any changes in the plan during the period.

Financial statements provided by retirement benefit plans include the following, if applicable:

(a)

a statement of net assets available for benefits disclosing:

(i)

assets at the end of the period suitably classified;

(ii)

the basis of valuation of assets;

(iii)

details of any single investment exceeding either 5 % of the net assets available for benefits or 5 % of any class or type of security;

(iv)

details of any investment in the employer; and

(v)

liabilities other than the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits;

(b)

a statement of changes in net assets available for benefits showing the following:

(i)

employer contributions;

(ii)

employee contributions;

(iii)

investment income such as interest and dividends;

(iv)

other income;

(v)

benefits paid or payable (analysed, for example, as retirement, death and disability benefits, and lump-sum payments);

(vi)

administrative expenses;

(vii)

other expenses;

(viii)

taxes on income;

(ix)

profits and losses on disposal of investments and changes in value of investments; and

(x)

transfers from and to other plans;

(c)

a description of the funding policy;

(d)

for defined benefit plans, the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits (which may distinguish between vested benefits and non-vested benefits) based on the benefits promised under the terms of the plan, on service rendered to date and using either current salary levels or projected salary levels; this information may be included in an accompanying actuarial report to be read in conjunction with the related financial statements; and

(e)

for defined benefit plans, a description of the significant actuarial assumptions made and the method used to calculate the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits.

The report of a retirement benefit plan contains a description of the plan, either as part of the financial statements or in a separate report. It may contain the following:

(a)

the names of the employers and the employee groups covered;

(b)

the number of participants receiving benefits and the number of other participants, classified as appropriate;

(c)

the type of plan — defined contribution or defined benefit;

(d)

a note as to whether participants contribute to the plan;

(e)

a description of the retirement benefits promised to participants;

(f)

a description of any plan termination terms; and

(g)

changes in items (a) to (f) during the period covered by the report.

It is not uncommon to refer to other documents that are readily available to users and in which the plan is described, and to include only information on subsequent changes.

EFFECTIVE DATE

This standard becomes operative for financial statements of retirement benefit plans covering periods beginning on or after 1 January 1988.

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 27

Consolidated and separate financial statements

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied in the preparation and presentation of consolidated financial statements for a group of entities under the control of a parent.

This standard does not deal with methods of accounting for business combinations and their effects on consolidation, including goodwill arising on a business combination (see IFRS 3 Business combinations ).

This standard shall also be applied in accounting for investments in subsidiaries, jointly controlled entities and associates when an entity elects, or is required by local regulations, to present separate financial statements.

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

Consolidated financial statements are the financial statements of a group presented as those of a single economic entity.

Control is the power to govern the financial and operating policies of an entity so as to obtain benefits from its activities.

The cost method is a method of accounting for an investment whereby the investment is recognised at cost. The investor recognises income from the investment only to the extent that the investor receives distributions from accumulated profits of the investee arising after the date of acquisition. Distributions received in excess of such profits are regarded as a recovery of investment and are recognised as a reduction of the cost of the investment.

A group is a parent and all its subsidiaries.

Minority interest is that portion of the profit or loss and net assets of a subsidiary attributable to equity interests that are not owned, directly or indirectly through subsidiaries, by the parent.

A parent is an entity that has one or more subsidiaries.

Separate financial statements are those presented by a parent, an investor in an associate or a venturer in a jointly controlled entity, in which the investments are accounted for on the basis of the direct equity interest rather than on the basis of the reported results and net assets of the investees.

A subsidiary is an entity, including an unincorporated entity such as a partnership, that is controlled by another entity (known as the parent).

A parent or its subsidiary may be an investor in an associate or a venturer in a jointly controlled entity. In such cases, consolidated financial statements prepared and presented in accordance with this standard are also prepared so as to comply with IAS 28 Investments in associates and IAS 31 Interests in joint ventures .

For an entity described in paragraph 5, separate financial statements are those prepared and presented in addition to the financial statements referred to in paragraph 5. Separate financial statements need not be appended to, or accompany, those statements.

The financial statements of an entity that does not have a subsidiary, associate or venturer's interest in a jointly controlled entity are not separate financial statements.

A parent that is exempted in accordance with paragraph 10 from presenting consolidated financial statements may present separate financial statements as its only financial statements.

PRESENTATION OF CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

A parent, other than a parent described in paragraph 10, shall present consolidated financial statements in which it consolidates its investments in subsidiaries in accordance with this standard.

A parent need not present consolidated financial statements if and only if:

(a)

the parent is itself a wholly-owned subsidiary, or is a partially-owned subsidiary of another entity and its other owners, including those not otherwise entitled to vote, have been informed about, and do not object to, the parent not presenting consolidated financial statements;

(b)

the parent's debt or equity instruments are not traded in a public market (a domestic or foreign stock exchange or an over-the-counter market, including local and regional markets);

(c)

the parent did not file, nor is it in the process of filing, its financial statements with a securities commission or other regulatory organisation for the purpose of issuing any class of instruments in a public market; and

(d)

the ultimate or any intermediate parent of the parent produces consolidated financial statements available for public use that comply with international financial reporting standards.

A parent that elects in accordance with paragraph 10 not to present consolidated financial statements, and presents only separate financial statements, complies with paragraphs 37-42.

SCOPE OF CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

Consolidated financial statements shall include all subsidiaries of the parent ( 1 ) .

Control is presumed to exist when the parent owns, directly or indirectly through subsidiaries, more than half of the voting power of an entity unless, in exceptional circumstances, it can be clearly demonstrated that such ownership does not constitute control. Control also exists when the parent owns half or less of the voting power of an entity when there is ( 2 ) :

(a)

power over more than half of the voting rights by virtue of an agreement with other investors;

(b)

power to govern the financial and operating policies of the entity under a statute or an agreement;

(c)

power to appoint or remove the majority of the members of the board of directors or equivalent governing body and control of the entity is by that board or body; or

(d)

power to cast the majority of votes at meetings of the board of directors or equivalent governing body and control of the entity is by that board or body.

An entity may own share warrants, share call options, debt or equity instruments that are convertible into ordinary shares, or other similar instruments that have the potential, if exercised or converted, to give the entity voting power or reduce another party's voting power over the financial and operating policies of another entity (potential voting rights). The existence and effect of potential voting rights that are currently exercisable or convertible, including potential voting rights held by another entity, are considered when assessing whether an entity has the power to govern the financial and operating policies of another entity. Potential voting rights are not currently exercisable or convertible when, for example, they cannot be exercised or converted until a future date or until the occurrence of a future event.

In assessing whether potential voting rights contribute to control, the entity examines all facts and circumstances (including the terms of exercise of the potential voting rights and any other contractual arrangements whether considered individually or in combination) that affect potential voting rights, except the intention of management and the financial ability to exercise or convert.

[Deleted]

A subsidiary is not excluded from consolidation simply because the investor is a venture capital organisation, mutual fund, unit trust or similar entity.

A subsidiary is not excluded from consolidation because its business activities are dissimilar from those of the other entities within the group. Relevant information is provided by consolidating such subsidiaries and disclosing additional information in the consolidated financial statements about the different business activities of subsidiaries. For example, the disclosures required by IFRS 8 Operating segments help to explain the significance of different business activities within the group.

A parent loses control when it loses the power to govern the financial and operating policies of an investee so as to obtain benefit from its activities. The loss of control can occur with or without a change in absolute or relative ownership levels. It could occur, for example, when a subsidiary becomes subject to the control of a government, court, administrator or regulator. It could also occur as a result of a contractual agreement.

CONSOLIDATION PROCEDURES

In preparing consolidated financial statements, an entity combines the financial statements of the parent and its subsidiaries line by line by adding together like items of assets, liabilities, equity, income and expenses. In order that the consolidated financial statements present financial information about the group as that of a single economic entity, the following steps are then taken:

(a)

the carrying amount of the parent's investment in each subsidiary and the parent's portion of equity of each subsidiary are eliminated (see IFRS 3, which describes the treatment of any resultant goodwill);

(b)

minority interests in the profit or loss of consolidated subsidiaries for the reporting period are identified; and

(c)

minority interests in the net assets of consolidated subsidiaries are identified separately from the parent shareholders' equity in them. Minority interests in the net assets consist of:

(i)

the amount of those minority interests at the date of the original combination calculated in accordance with IFRS 3; and

(ii)

the minority's share of changes in equity since the date of the combination.

When potential voting rights exist, the proportions of profit or loss and changes in equity allocated to the parent and minority interests are determined on the basis of present ownership interests and do not reflect the possible exercise or conversion of potential voting rights.

Intragroup balances, transactions, income and expenses shall be eliminated in full.

Intragroup balances and transactions, including income, expenses and dividends, are eliminated in full. Profits and losses resulting from intragroup transactions that are recognised in assets, such as inventory and fixed assets, are eliminated in full. Intragroup losses may indicate an impairment that requires recognition in the consolidated financial statements. IAS 12 Income taxes applies to temporary differences that arise from the elimination of profits and losses resulting from intragroup transactions.

The financial statements of the parent and its subsidiaries used in the preparation of the consolidated financial statements shall be prepared as of the same reporting date. When the reporting dates of the parent and a subsidiary are different, the subsidiary prepares, for consolidation purposes, additional financial statements as of the same date as the financial statements of the parent unless it is impracticable to do so.

When, in accordance with paragraph 26, the financial statements of a subsidiary used in the preparation of consolidated financial statements are prepared as of a reporting date different from that of the parent, adjustments shall be made for the effects of significant transactions or events that occur between that date and the date of the parent's financial statements. In any case, the difference between the reporting date of the subsidiary and that of the parent shall be no more than three months. The length of the reporting periods and any difference in the reporting dates shall be the same from period to period.

Consolidated financial statements shall be prepared using uniform accounting policies for like transactions and other events in similar circumstances.

If a member of the group uses accounting policies other than those adopted in the consolidated financial statements for like transactions and events in similar circumstances, appropriate adjustments are made to its financial statements in preparing the consolidated financial statements.

The income and expenses of a subsidiary are included in the consolidated financial statements from the acquisition date as defined in IFRS 3. The income and expenses of a subsidiary are included in the consolidated financial statements until the date on which the parent ceases to control the subsidiary. The difference between the proceeds from the disposal of the subsidiary and its carrying amount as of the date of disposal, including the cumulative amount of any exchange differences that relate to the subsidiary recognised in equity in accordance with IAS 21 The effects of changes in foreign exchange rates , is recognised in the consolidated income statement as the gain or loss on the disposal of the subsidiary.

An investment in an entity shall be accounted for in accordance with IAS 39 Financial instruments: recognition and measurement from the date that it ceases to be a subsidiary, provided that it does not become an associate as defined in IAS 28 or a jointly controlled entity as described in IAS 31.

The carrying amount of the investment at the date that the entity ceases to be a subsidiary shall be regarded as the cost on initial measurement of a financial asset in accordance with IAS 39.

Minority interests shall be presented in the consolidated balance sheet within equity, separately from the parent shareholders' equity. Minority interests in the profit or loss of the group shall also be separately disclosed.

The profit or loss is attributed to the parent shareholders and minority interests. Because both are equity, the amount attributed to minority interests is not income or expense.

Losses applicable to the minority in a consolidated subsidiary may exceed the minority interest in the subsidiary's equity. The excess, and any further losses applicable to the minority, are allocated against the majority interest except to the extent that the minority has a binding obligation and is able to make an additional investment to cover the losses. If the subsidiary subsequently reports profits, such profits are allocated to the majority interest until the minority's share of losses previously absorbed by the majority has been recovered.

If a subsidiary has outstanding cumulative preference shares that are held by minority interests and classified as equity, the parent computes its share of profits or losses after adjusting for the dividends on such shares, whether or not dividends have been declared.

ACCOUNTING FOR INVESTMENTS IN SUBSIDIARIES, JOINTLY CONTROLLED ENTITIES AND ASSOCIATES IN SEPARATE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

When separate financial statements are prepared, investments in subsidiaries, jointly controlled entities and associates that are not classified as held for sale (or included in a disposal group that is classified as held for sale) in accordance with IFRS 5 shall be accounted for either:

(a)

at cost; or

(b)

in accordance with IAS 39.

The same accounting shall be applied for each category of investments. Investments in subsidiaries, jointly controlled entities and associates that are classified as held for sale (or included in a disposal group that is classified as held for sale) in accordance with IFRS 5 shall be accounted for in accordance with that IFRS.

This standard does not mandate which entities produce separate financial statements available for public use. Paragraphs 37 and 39-42 apply when an entity prepares separate financial statements that comply with international financial reporting standards. The entity also produces consolidated financial statements available for public use as required by paragraph 9, unless the exemption provided in paragraph 10 is applicable.

Investments in jointly controlled entities and associates that are accounted for in accordance with IAS 39 in the consolidated financial statements shall be accounted for in the same way in the investor's separate financial statements.

DISCLOSURE

The following disclosures shall be made in consolidated financial statements:

(a)

[Deleted]

(b)

[Deleted]

(c)

the nature of the relationship between the parent and a subsidiary when the parent does not own, directly or indirectly through subsidiaries, more than half of the voting power;

(d)

the reasons why the ownership, directly or indirectly through subsidiaries, of more than half of the voting or potential voting power of an investee does not constitute control;

(e)

the reporting date of the financial statements of a subsidiary when such financial statements are used to prepare consolidated financial statements and are as of a reporting date or for a period that is different from that of the parent, and the reason for using a different reporting date or period; and

(f)

the nature and extent of any significant restrictions (e.g. resulting from borrowing arrangements or regulatory requirements) on the ability of subsidiaries to transfer funds to the parent in the form of cash dividends or to repay loans or advances.

When separate financial statements are prepared for a parent that, in accordance with paragraph 10, elects not to prepare consolidated financial statements, those separate financial statements shall disclose:

(a)

the fact that the financial statements are separate financial statements; that the exemption from consolidation has been used; the name and country of incorporation or residence of the entity whose consolidated financial statements that comply with international financial reporting standards have been produced for public use; and the address where those consolidated financial statements are obtainable;

(b)

a list of significant investments in subsidiaries, jointly controlled entities and associates, including the name, country of incorporation or residence, proportion of ownership interest and, if different, proportion of voting power held; and

(c)

a description of the method used to account for the investments listed under (b).

When a parent (other than a parent covered by paragraph 41), venturer with an interest in a jointly controlled entity or an investor in an associate prepares separate financial statements, those separate financial statements shall disclose:

(a)

the fact that the statements are separate financial statements and the reasons why those statements are prepared if not required by law;

(b)

(c)

a description of the method used to account for the investments listed under (b);

and shall identify the financial statements prepared in accordance with paragraph 9 of this standard, IAS 28 and IAS 31 to which they relate.

EFFECTIVE DATE

WITHDRAWAL OF OTHER PRONOUNCEMENTS

This standard supersedes IAS 27 Consolidated financial statements and accounting for investments in subsidiaries (revised in 2000).

This standard supersedes SIC-33 Consolidation and equity method — potential voting rights and allocation of ownership interests .

( 1 ) If on acquisition a subsidiary meets the criteria to be classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5 Non-current assets held for sale and discontinued operations , it shall be accounted for in accordance with that standard.

( 2 ) See also SIC-12 Consolidation — special purpose entities .

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARD 28

Investments in associates

SCOPE

This standard shall be applied in accounting for investments in associates. However, it does not apply to investments in associates held by:

(a)

venture capital organisations; or

(b)

mutual funds, unit trusts and similar entities, including investment-linked insurance funds;

that upon initial recognition are designated as at fair value through profit or loss or are classified as held for trading and accounted for in accordance with IAS 39 Financial instruments: recognition and measurement . Such investments shall be measured at fair value in accordance with IAS 39, with changes in fair value recognised in profit or loss in the period of the change.

DEFINITIONS

The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:

An associate is an entity, including an unincorporated entity such as a partnership, over which the investor has significant influence and that is neither a subsidiary nor an interest in a joint venture.

Consolidated financial statements are the financial statements of a group presented as those of a single economic entity.

Control is the power to govern the financial and operating policies of an entity so as to obtain benefits from its activities.

The equity method is a method of accounting whereby the investment is initially recognised at cost and adjusted thereafter for the post-acquisition change in the investor's share of net assets of the investee. The profit or loss of the investor includes the investor's share of the profit or loss of the investee.

Joint control is the contractually agreed sharing of control over an economic activity, and exists only when the strategic financial and operating decisions relating to the activity require the unanimous consent of the parties sharing control (the venturers).

Significant influence is the power to participate in the financial and operating policy decisions of the investee but is not control or joint control over those policies.

A subsidiary is an entity, including an unincorporated entity such as a partnership, that is controlled by another entity (known as the parent).

Financial statements in which the equity method is applied are not separate financial statements, nor are the financial statements of an entity that does not have a subsidiary, associate or venturer's interest in a joint venture.

Separate financial statements are those presented in addition to consolidated financial statements, financial statements in which investments are accounted for using the equity method and financial statements in which venturers' interests in joint ventures are proportionately consolidated. Separate financial statements may or may not be appended to, or accompany, those financial statements.

Entities that are exempted in accordance with paragraph 10 of IAS 27 Consolidated and separate financial statements from consolidation, paragraph 2 of IAS 31 Interests in joint ventures from applying proportionate consolidation or paragraph 13(c) of this standard from applying the equity method may present separate financial statements as their only financial statements.

Significant influence

If an investor holds, directly or indirectly (e.g. through subsidiaries), 20 per cent or more of the voting power of the investee, it is presumed that the investor has significant influence, unless it can be clearly demonstrated that this is not the case. Conversely, if the investor holds, directly or indirectly (e.g. through subsidiaries), less than 20 per cent of the voting power of the investee, it is presumed that the investor does not have significant influence, unless such influence can be clearly demonstrated. A substantial or majority ownership by another investor does not necessarily preclude an investor from having significant influence.

The existence of significant influence by an investor is usually evidenced in one or more of the following ways:

(a)

representation on the board of directors or equivalent governing body of the investee;

(b)

participation in policy-making processes, including participation in decisions about dividends or other distributions;

(c)

material transactions between the investor and the investee;

(d)

interchange of managerial personnel; or

(e)

provision of essential technical information.

An entity may own share warrants, share call options, debt or equity instruments that are convertible into ordinary shares, or other similar instruments that have the potential, if exercised or converted, to give the entity additional voting power or reduce another party's voting power over the financial and operating policies of another entity (i.e. potential voting rights). The existence and effect of potential voting rights that are currently exercisable or convertible, including potential voting rights held by other entities, are considered when assessing whether an entity has significant influence. Potential voting rights are not currently exercisable or convertible when, for example, they cannot be exercised or converted until a future date or until the occurrence of a future event.

In assessing whether potential voting rights contribute to significant influence, the entity examines all facts and circumstances (including the terms of exercise of the potential voting rights and any other contractual arrangements whether considered individually or in combination) that affect potential rights, except the intention of management and the financial ability to exercise or convert.

An entity loses significant influence over an investee when it loses the power to participate in the financial and operating policy decisions of that investee. The loss of significant influence can occur with or without a change in absolute or relative ownership levels. It could occur, for example, when an associate becomes subject to the control of a government, court, administrator or regulator. It could also occur as a result of a contractual agreement.

Equity method

Under the equity method, the investment in an associate is initially recognised at cost and the carrying amount is increased or decreased to recognise the investor's share of the profit or loss of the investee after the date of acquisition. The investor's share of the profit or loss of the investee is recognised in the investor's profit or loss. Distributions received from an investee reduce the carrying amount of the investment. Adjustments to the carrying amount may also be necessary for changes in the investor's proportionate interest in the investee arising from changes in the investee's equity that have not been recognised in the investee's profit or loss. Such changes include those arising from the revaluation of property, plant and equipment and from foreign exchange translation differences. The investor's share of those changes is recognised directly in equity of the investor.

When potential voting rights exist, the investor's share of profit or loss of the investee and of changes in the investee's equity is determined on the basis of present ownership interests and does not reflect the possible exercise or conversion of potential voting rights.

APPLICATION OF THE EQUITY METHOD

An investment in an associate shall be accounted for using the equity method except when:

(a)

the investment is classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5 Non-current assets held for sale and discontinued operations ;

(b)

the exception in paragraph 10 of IAS 27, allowing a parent that also has an investment in an associate not to present consolidated financial statements, applies; or

(c)

all of the following apply:

(i)

the investor is a wholly-owned subsidiary, or is a partially-owned subsidiary of another entity and its other owners, including those not otherwise entitled to vote, have been informed about, and do not object to, the investor not applying the equity method;

(ii)

the investor's debt or equity instruments are not traded in a public market (a domestic or foreign stock exchange or an over-the-counter market, including local and regional markets);

(iii)

the investor did not file, nor is it in the process of filing, its financial statements with a securities commission or other regulatory organisation, for the purpose of issuing any class of instruments in a public market; and

(iv)

the ultimate or any intermediate parent of the investor produces consolidated financial statements available for public use that comply with international financial reporting standards.

Investments described in paragraph 13(a) shall be accounted for in accordance with IFRS 5.

When an investment in an associate previously classified as held for sale no longer meets the criteria to be so classified, it shall be accounted for using the equity method as from the date of its classification as held for sale. Financial statements for the periods since classification as held for sale shall be amended accordingly.

[Deleted]

The recognition of income on the basis of distributions received may not be an adequate measure of the income earned by an investor on an investment in an associate because the distributions received may bear little relation to the performance of the associate. Because the investor has significant influence over the associate, the investor has an interest in the associate's performance and, as a result, the return on its investment. The investor accounts for this interest by extending the scope of its financial statements to include its share of profits or losses of such an associate. As a result, application of the equity method provides more informative reporting of the net assets and profit or loss of the investor.

An investor shall discontinue the use of the equity method from the date that it ceases to have significant influence over an associate and shall account for the investment in accordance with IAS 39 from that date, provided the associate does not become a subsidiary or a joint venture as defined in IAS 31.

The carrying amount of the investment at the date that it ceases to be an associate shall be regarded as its cost on initial measurement as a financial asset in accordance with IAS 39.

Many of the procedures appropriate for the application of the equity method are similar to the consolidation procedures described in IAS 27. Furthermore, the concepts underlying the procedures used in accounting for the acquisition of a subsidiary are also adopted in accounting for the acquisition of an investment in an associate.

A group's share in an associate is the aggregate of the holdings in that associate by the parent and its subsidiaries. The holdings of the group's other associates or joint ventures are ignored for this purpose. When an associate has subsidiaries, associates, or joint ventures, the profits or losses and net assets taken into account in applying the equity method are those recognised in the associate's financial statements (including the associate's share of the profits or losses and net assets of its associates and joint ventures), after any adjustments necessary to give effect to uniform accounting policies (see paragraphs 26 and 27).

Profits and losses resulting from ‘upstream’ and ‘downstream’ transactions between an investor (including its consolidated subsidiaries) and an associate are recognised in the investor's financial statements only to the extent of unrelated investors' interests in the associate. ‘Upstream’ transactions are, for example, sales of assets from an associate to the investor. ‘Downstream’ transactions are, for example, sales of assets from the investor to an associate. The investor's share in the associate's profits and losses resulting from these transactions is eliminated.

An investment in an associate is accounted for using the equity method from the date on which it becomes an associate. On acquisition of the investment any difference between the cost of the investment and the investor's share of the net fair value of the associate's identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities is accounted for in accordance with IFRS 3 Business combinations . Therefore:

(a)

goodwill relating to an associate is included in the carrying amount of the investment. However, amortisation of that goodwill is not permitted and is therefore not included in the determination of the investor's share of the associate's profits or losses;

(b)

Lineage: Amended

Timeline